Physical Aspect.] This region is composed of mountains, hills, plains, and deserts; but the most striking feature is the great desert called Cobi by the natives, and Shamo by the Chinese. The precise extent of this desert is not known: we only know that it extends S. to Tibet, and W. to the lake of Lop, 25° W. of Peking. It extends thence N.E. to the Toola river, the eastern branch of the Selinga. Its longitudinal extent is at least 1,400 miles. Its breadth is various in various places, varying from 180 to 100 miles across. In some places it is quite bare, without wood, or water, or grass, except a few ponds or marshes formed by the rains, with here and there a well of water. It is larger and more frightful towards the west, of which quarter Marco Polo has given such fearful descriptions, as the habitation of spectres who wile travellers out of their way, so that they perish with famine, or are devoured by wild beasts. This part of the desert is called 'the Wilderness of Lop.' This commences at the city of Nijang, say the historians of the Tang dynasty, 250 ly or 70 British miles to the E. of Khotan. There in going east the traveller meets with the great running sands,' which are so named because these sands are moveable, and because pushed about by the winds they form waves and hillocks. What of this desert lies between Peking and Kiakhta must be crossed by all who take this route. The desert here commences about 12 days' journey to the S.E. of Kiakhta a little to the S. of the Toola, and is called the Hungry Desert,' as neither food nor water are to be got in it. Mr Bell, who went this route with the Russian ambassador, took 28 days to cross it, from the Toola to a place called Naring Karassu, and during all that space he saw neither tree, river, bush, mountain, nor house. This desert is much higher, he observes, than the level of China, the descent being much greater on the side of China than on that of the desert. But this must not be confounded with the Shamo itself which is a desert of moving sand, and in his route Mr Bell crossed a great sand bank 20 miles broad, and which was the eastern extremity of the Gobi or Shamo, which he was told was 30 leagues across in some places. The fact is that Mongolia is just a high, cold, and barren upland. It is divided politically into two regions, namely: 1st, Northern Mongolia, or the country of the Khalkhas, or Black Mongols; 2d, Southern Mongolia, or the region of the Yellow Mongols, including the Ortoo Mongols W. of the former.

CHAP. I.-NORTHERN MONGOLIA.

THIS region extends from mount Altay or Bogdo on the W., to the province of Solon on the E., an extent of 22 degrees of longitude, and from latitude to enable us to say at what point of either or both the junction of the two ranges take place, and we know not the precise line of direction of the great Bogdo, none of the Jesuits who composed the great maps of China and Chinesian Tartary having travelled in this direction. The great Bogdo seems also to be connected with the Kuenlung, the northern frontier of Tibet, and with the mountains of Shensee, by lateral ranges running across the Cobi from N. W. to S. E. in various places. It is said that in going from Khya-yuquan N. W. to Hami (the former is the N. W. termination of the great wall in 39° 48' N. and 17° 21' 30" W. of Peking) the ground rises till we arrive at Hami (42° 53′ 20' N. lat., and 22° 23′ 20′′ W. of Peking) at the foot of the mountains, where the road divides, the one to the north of the Alak mountains into Soongaria, and the other to the S. to the Mohammedan cities of Little Bukaria. The S. W. must be intended, as another road leads S. S. E. from Hami to Sha-chew, and from thence direct E. to Khya-yuquan above mentioned. The matter being thus uncertain, we can only say, in general terms, that the Shamo or Great Desert is in this quarter the S. W. boundary of Mongolia, and separates it from the oasis of

the 51st degree of N. lat. to the southern extremity of the Kobi or desert, which is reckoned to belong to them; but in Du Halde's account, the breadth is but 5 degrees, or from the 45th to the 51st degree.

Boundaries.] This region has Soongaria on the W.; the Mandshoors on the E.; the Sharra Mongols on the S. and S.E.; and Siberia on the N. Mountains.] The country is traversed by several ranges of great elevation, as the range of Sochonda, in which are the sources of the Ingoda, a tributary of the Onon, the Kentey han Alin, in which are those of the Onon, the Toola and the Kerlon, and the Hangay Alin which runs S.E. from the most eastern windings of the great Bogdo through Mongolia, and is called Changai Alin by Pallas,-and finally the great Bogdo itself, supposed by the natives to be the highest range of central Asia, and which rears its rugged sides and snowy summits with striking sublimity, between the Mongolian and Soongarian deserts. This chain is of great breadth and length as well as elevation, and consists of a number of parallel ranges under different appellations, running from S.E. to the N.W. and from S.W. to N.E. On the Russian frontier, is the chain of Egoodin Chau Alin, which commences 157 versts W. of Kiakhta at the source of the Katsooratai, which falls into the Dzeltouri 56 versts from its entrance into the Dzida. This chain, also called Uhdensong, runs 200 versts N.W. separating the sources of the Ekhe, the Dzida, and the Oukee from each other. The road from Kiakhta S. to the Mongolian upland, is a continued ascent of several days' journey. Now as Kiakhta is itself 2560 feet above the sea, the height of this plateau must be very great, and the cold increases gradually till it becomes intense. On the road to the Oorga or court of the khan of the Khalkhas, from Kiakhta-from which it is 220 miles distant-several extensive mountain ranges must be crossed, as the Blue mountains, the White mountains, with long and narrow defiles, and the Mangatai mountains to the S.E. steep and frequented by wild goats, deer, foxes, steppe-cats, and bears. On the left of the road is an insulated volcano, called Bangee, and the Tumecky mountains. From a high eminence in this last range, is an extensive view of naked hills, whose sharp summits seem like a succession of blue waves. To the E. of the Mangatai or steep mountains, rises at a great distance Mount Duloshee, insulated like Mount Blanc, and presenting the appearance of an immense cone, and still farther east Mount Mandal, a still loftier summit. These two lofty summits undoubtedly belong to the range of Mount Kentey. As we approach Oorga, the mountains increase in number, but are covered with forests large and extensive, used as hunting grounds for the grandees of the khan. Twenty versts N. of Oorga is the range of Guntoo, the highest Timkowski and his suit had yet crossed, and which was covered with snow several vershoks deep.

6 All the mountains on the road had ovos or cairns of stones on their summits, and on the highest summit of the Guntoo, is a very large obo surrounded with wooden pil. lars, bearing inscriptions in the Tibetian language. Every high mountain, shady tree, or large river, is considered by the Mongols as the abode of some good spirit, in whose honour these obos or heaps of stones are erected. Every traveller passing by any of them, feels himself bound to alight, and standing towards the south side of the oba, with his face turned to the N. bow to it and mutter his prayer of Om-ma-nee-pai-mee-om, at the same time throwing down some of his property before it. Frequently pieces of linen rags are fluttering upon a pole, appended to these obos, and still oftener bunches of horse hair. Amongst these mountains is one called Khan Ola or the Royal Mountain on which are several temples and sepulchres. As this region is but comparatively little known, we cannot pretend to describe the other ranges; their names as they occur in Du Halde and D'Anville's maps are all that we know about them, and to these we refer such readers, who wish for more information, as these will communicate more to the mind by the eye than any verbal description.

Rivers.] This part of Mongolia is pretty well watered, especially to the N.W. and E. The chief rivers are the Selingha, Orkhon Toola, Kerlon Argoon, Onon, Khalkha Pira, Altay or Siba, Hara, Eeroo, Iben Pira, Patarik Pira, Tegurik Pira, and others, all famous in Mongolian story.-The Selingha is composed of a multitude of minor streams, all originating at the base of the mountains of Bogdo. But its chief source seems to be in the lake called Husukul or Kosogol in 52 N. lat. and 16° 27′ W. of Peking, where it passes out under the name of the Ekhe according to the Russian maps. The other chief branches are the Horatol from the W. and the Haswee from the S.W.-The Orkhon is the great southern branch of the Selingha, and rises in the same vast range of mountains in 46° 40′ N. and 14° 40′ W. of Peking, and running in a N.N.E. direction, joins the Toola in 49° N. and 11° 25′ W. of Peking, after a course of 300 B. miles exclusive of sinuosities which are very great. The Toola is the third large stream which forms the great volume of the Selingha. It rises in 48° 10' N. and 8° 30′ W. of Peking, in the very centre of the Kintey or Kinhan range, being divided from the source of the Wanan by an intervening ridge; from that of the Kirlon by another; by another from the sources of the Khara and Eeroo; whilst on the N. it is finally separated by a ridge from the source of the Podemnaja, which enters the Selingha at Selinginsky. This must therefore be a very elevated spot, as it divides the waters which flow N. to the Arctic sea from those which descend eastward to the sea of Amoor. The Toola runs first a S.W. and then a N.W. course to the Orkhon, of about 300 miles, and a breadth of 300 yards nigh the confluence, flowing gently over a pavement of rocks. The combined stream, after a N.E. course of more than 100 miles, joins the Selingha about 20 miles to the S. of Kiakhta, when it enters eastern Siberia, and passes the town of Selinginsky 91 versts N. of Kiakhta, with a stream double the breadth of the Thames at London bridge, and finally enters the sea of Baikal in 52° 23′ N. and 107° 30′ E. long. with a stream a mile in breadth. Issuing thence under the new name of the Angara in 52° N. and 105° E. long. with a channel of a mile broad and 12 feet deep, and so clear that the pebbly bed is distinctly seen, it runs N. and N.W. till it joins or rather receives the Jenisea, after a comparative course of 1440 B. miles from the mountains of Bogdo, and 780 from the Baikal More, and 660 under the name of the Selingha. The upper basin of this noble river, comprehending the three minor basins of the Selingha, the Orkhon, and the Toola, embraces the N.W. angle of northern Mongolia. This large stream is in fact, though not in opinion, the main branch and parent stream of the Jenisea, and should in all justice be so denominated by modern geographers.-The Kerlon has been already described in our account of the Mandshoors, as the twin stream of the Amoor. It is under the name of the Kerlon only that it can be called a Mongolian river, as beyond the Koolon Noor it is partly a Russian river. It is but a small shallow stream not above 60 feet broad, and runs a long winding course of 600 miles, almost due E. to the Koolon lake which it enters in 48° 50′ 24′′ N. and 0° 45' E. of Peking, and issues out under the name of the Argoon.-The Onon has been already described.—The Khalkha rises in the Siolki range, on the confines of the Mandshoors, in the lake of Kalhee, at the base of the Mukhtur Alin in 48° N. and 4° 30′ E. of Peking, and runs a winding but generally western course of 1600 miles to the Puyur lake. Emerging thence under the name of the Urson, it runs N. to the Koolon Noor, which it enters on the eastern side, in 49° N. and 1o 30' E. of Peking, after a course of 70 miles under

the name of Urson, as above said. This river is considered to give name to the Khalkhas, although they do not frequent it much.-The Altay or Siba is merely noticed as the place of encampment of a petty Mongol khan. The Hara, Eeroo, and Iben Pira are all streams that fall into the Orkhon, the two former from the S.E., and the latter from the W. In 1726 the abode of the Khutuktu-lama and the khan of the Khalkhas was in 49° 26' 47′′ and 10° 59' W. of Peking, though now it is placed farther S. on the Toola.-The Patarik Pira is parted from the source of the Haswee by a ridge of the Changai, and runs 2 degrees S. to the Chahan Omo, or white lake.'

Lakes. This region has several large, and a considerable number of small lakes, or rather meers or ponds. The most northern is the Husukul or Kosogol in the N.W. point, where the Chinese and Russian frontiers meet, but it is wholly within the Mongolian frontier, in N. lat. 52°. It is completely surrounded with mountains, called in the map the Whaypoldok Alin, except to the S.E. where flows out the Ekhe the N.W. branch of the Selingba. It is said to be 70 miles from S. to N. and 20 from W. to E.; but it does not seem to be half that size in the Russian maps. The largest lake seems to be the Koolon Noor, into which the Kerlon and Khalka rivers run, and out of which issues the Argoon. It extends from 48° 45' 50. N. to 49° 26' N.; and is about 46 B. miles long from S.W. to N.E. by one-half in breadth. Whether it is fresh, or brackish, or salt the Jesuit fathers have not told us, as they do not seem to have tasted it. It is probably fresh. Towards the N.E. it is hidden for much the greater part by mountains, so that Gerbillon only saw its S.W. extremity, where it was so shallow that one might wade 4 Chinese furlongs and not find above three feet water. The shores of the lake at the S.W. end are barren and sandy, without herbage, except a species of tufty herb, of which the camels are very fond. Next in importance is the lake of Puyur, Puir, or Piur, about 70 miles in compass, extending from S.S.W. to N.N.E. and abounding in fish. On account of its great extent, the Koolon Noor is called by the Tartars Argoon Dalay or 'the sea of the Argoon.' The names of these two lakes have been strangely corrupted by all the Western or Mohammedan historians from ignorance of the Mongolian language, in which the term noor always signifies a lake, as Balkhash Noor, Suissan Noor, Altin Noor, and others. These historians, as Abulghazi, and those whom La Croix followed in his life of Jenghiz Khan, identifying this word with the term Nauir or Nahar, a river,' in the Hebrew, Arabic, and other kindred languages, have converted the Koolon Noor or Nurr into Collanawer, and the Piur Noor into Biurnawer, thus making them both rivers instead of lakes, and in this way the lake of Koolon has been confounded with the Toola by the authors of the Modern Universal History. The nomadic hordes, who encamped on the borders of these two lakes and the streams nigh or connected with them, were denominated the Su Mongols and Water Tartars, by the Western historians, in opposition to those who wandered in the dry and thirsty plains of the Shamo.

Climate, Soil, and Produce.] From its high elevation, this region is very cold, especially in winter, but the two latter form a meagre subject, of which but little can be said. The mountains of Kinhan or Kenty seem to be well wooded on their slopes, indicating a much lower elevation than those of the Mooz Tagler, and the Himallah, which are totally destitute of that necessary article. Gerbillon, who travelled alongst the Kerlon and Toola, gives us a very favourable picture of the mountains near their

sources, especially those near that of the latter. He describes them as covered with beautiful woods of pines and firs, and as abounding in wild strawberries, in shape, size, colour, and taste, exactly resembling those of France, and mentions a mountain covered with woods full of them. The same circumstance was noticed by Moorcroft in the vicinity of the Nitee pass, where the mountains were covered with strawberry plants, with yellow, red, and white flowers, and having a cone of seed without any pulp. On the banks of the Upper Toola, among the mountains, is the Han Alin, a high range quite covered with pines and firs. Moorcroft travelled 30

lys alongst the side of this forest, the resort of bears, stags, and wild boars. The Toola, in this part of its course, forms several small isles, full of most delightful groves, and both its banks are lined with bushy and beautiful trees, and beyond these are meadows of the finest and richest grass. The stream is exceedingly transparent, and the water excellent, running over a bed of flints and pebbles. In fine, Gerbillon describes this place as the most charming he had seen in all Mongolia. The Khalkhas, in fact, possess by far the best part of Mongolia, for this plain reason, that it is best watered, and the pastures and meadows on the banks of the Selingha, Orkhon, Toola, and Kerlon, have none equal to them in Tartary, and are of more account with the Mongols on this account than any other streams that are found in this region. These meadows and plains afford pasture for innumerable flocks of horses, camels, sheep, goats, cows, and oxen, which constitute the sole wealth of the Mongols. Though the great elevation of the country be the reason why so much desert exists in Tartary, yet these deserts are not altogether so frightful and barren as they have been represented by some travellers. Setting aside the Gobi or Shamo and a few other small sandy tracts, all the rest afford good pasture and abundance of grass, as high as a man's waist, which would grow still higher but for the scarcity of water. From this defect most of it decays presently at the root; and as withered grass quite chokes up the young, the Mongols in spring, like the Indians of North America, set fire to the old herbage, which sometimes spreads round to a circle of 100 leagues. In a fortnight after, the new grass shoots up every where to the height of a span, which shows the great fertility of the soil, and so much of this vast region, as is supplied with water, could support quadruple the number of the present natives were it cultivated, but nomadic tribes never think of agriculture, as it is quite inconsistent with their wandering habits. The Jesuit missionaries, however, say that all the region westwards, from the Mandshoors to the Caspian sea, is generally unfit for tillage, and that that pastured by the Naymans, and those of Korchin and Oban, in S.E. Mongolia, are worst of all.

Mineralogy and Zoology.] Of the former we may be said to be quite ignorant, and of the latter our knowledge is very limited. It may be presumed, from the mountainous nature of the country, that it should abound in metals and minerals, especially as Russian Daouria, a province very similar in aspect, is noted for its minerals. It abounds, however, with all sorts of game, even of those known in Europe, as wild boars, hares, deer, squirrels, foxes, and an animal called tael-pe, the skins of which are made into mantles at Peking to keep out the cold. Yellow goats, so common in Southern Mongolia, are not so here. Tigers and leopards are numerous. Of the former there are two kinds, the red and the white, but both striped, the one with black lists, and the latter with black and gray. They are very large and nimble. The other animals which