Wieland as his model, and in which he caught the charming style and versification of that master. Had he prosecuted the career thus begun at the age of eighteen, he would probably have become one of the most popular as well as the most gifted of German poets. Circumstances however converted him into a visionary enthusiast. He conceived a deep attachment for an amiable and accomplished girl, named Cecilia, the daughter of one of the professors; and her death, within a year or two afterwards, left him inconsolable. He resolved to immortalise his passion and her name and perfections: accordingly, with only an interval during which he served as a volunteer in the war of 1813-14, he applied himself to the composition of 'Cecilia,' a romantic poem in twenty cantos, completed by him in December 1815. Unfortunately the intensity of his own feelings overpowered his judgment; for the plan of the work is so complex, and so wild and improbable, that the fancy and genius displayed in it have been wasted upon a subject which scarcely any poetical power could invest with interest for the public. It is rich in striking scenes and incidents, in beautiful details, in graceful imagery, in harmonious versification; but it is wanting in that which fixes attention, and which is especially required in a work of such length. It is impossible not to admire the talent which it displays, and it is equally impossible not to regret that it should have been so ill applied. His subsequent romantic poem, 'Die Bezauberte Rose,' or 'Enchanted Rose,' in three cantos, in regular ottava rima, which obtained the prize offered by the publishers of the 'Urania' for the best production of the kind, and first published in that pocket-book, 1818, is the production by which he will continue to be known. It has passed through several editions, and may now be considered a standard work of its class in German literature. The poet himself however did not live to enjoy the honour it conferred upon his name; for after having been long in a gradually declining state, he died at his father's house at Celle, June 22nd 1817, the victim of consumption, but also of morbid and overstrained feeling. A collection of his poems and literary remains was published by his friend and instructor Bouterwek, in 4 vols. 8vo. SCHUMACHER, HEINRICH CHRISTIAN, was born on September 3, 1780, at Bramstedt in Holstein. He distinguished himself by his mathematical proficiency and by his predilection for astronomy. At the age of thirty he was created professor-extraordinary of astronomy in the University of Copenhagen, whence he was called in 1813 to be director of the observatory at Mannheim, returning to Copenhagen in 1815 as professor of astronomy and director of the observatory there. In 1817 he was employed by the Danish government to measure the degrees of longitude from Copenhagen to the west coast of Jutland, and those of latitude from Skagen, the northern cape of Jutland, to Lauenburg, on the frontiers of Hanover; afterwards continued through Hanover by Gauss. In 1821 he received from the Royal Scientific Society of Copenhagen the direction of the survey and mapping of Holstein and Lauenburg; and in that year the king caused a small but excellently furnished observatory to be built for him at Altona, where he resided till his death. In 1824, in conjunction with the English Board of Longitude, he fixed the measure of differences between the observatories of Greenwich and Altona, for which purpose the English admiralty furnished a steam-vessel, provided with twenty eight English and eight Danish chronometers. In 1830 he was employed in ascertaining the length of the seconds' pendulum, which had been made the base of the Danish scale of measures. In 1813 he commenced the publication of the Astronomische Nachrichten,' a work that is still continued, and is the only one that serves as a vehicle for the communication of opinions and facts from the astronomers of all the world, and contains a number of highly valuable essays. From 1820 to 1829 he published his Astronomische Hülfstafeln,' a good example of a carefully calculated ephemeris. In 1836 in conjunction with Bessel he undertook the editing of the 'Astronomischen Jahrbuchs.' He was a diligent and correct observer; in 1822 he announced the exact distances of Venus, Jupiter, Mars, and Saturn from the earth; and the phenomena connected with Encke's planet Astræa attracted much of his attention in the latter part of his life. He died at Altona on December 28, 1850. Schumacher united great talents with much modesty; he enjoyed the confidence of his Sovereign, which he repaid by his diligent services, and he uniformly treated his fellow labourers with the greatest courtesy, and imparted his assistance with unostentatious liberality. SCHUMANN, ROBERT, a composer who has a great reputation in Germany, but whose works are little known in this country. He was born about the year 1815, and spent a retired and uneventful life, chiefly at Leipzig, immersed in the study and practice of his art. His excessive application disordered his mind; and when he died, July 29, 1856, he had been several years the inmate of a lunatic asylum. He married Clara Wieck, the most celebrated female pianist of the day, who, with several children, survives him. Schumann was undoubtedly a man of great genius; but he has injured his reputation with his contemporaries by his endeavours to found a musical school, or sect, professing to disregard the authority of the older masters, and to establish a new system of musical composition. As music has always been in a progressive state, posterity may perhaps do him justice by adopting his innovations of style. His only work of mag nitude which has been publicly performed in England is a cantata, 'Paradise and the Peri,' the words of which are a translation of Moore's poem. It was produced at one of the Philharmonic Society's concerts last season, when the principal part was sung by Madame Goldschmidt (Jenny Lind), and, though our critics were at variance respecting its merits, yet it was generally regarded as a work of no ordinary power and beauty. SCHWANTHALER, LUDWIG MICHAEL, one of the most eminent of modern German sculptors, was born at Munich on the 26th of August 1802. For some generations his ancestors had been sculptors in the Tyrol; his father, Franz Schwanthaler, was settled in Munich, where he acquired a very respectable standing as a monumental sculptor. Ludwig received a good classical and general education; and being intended to pursue the family calling was early initiated into the arts of drawing and modelling, and the use of the chisel in his father's studio. At the Munich Academy of the Fine Arts he was regarded with coldness if not dislike on account of his free notions in art by Von Langer the director, who is said to have urged his friends to devote him to some other profession. The death of his father in 1821, by rendering it necessary that he should conduct the business for the maintenance of the family, fixed his destiny as a sculptor. The first commission which opened to him a prospect of making himself known was one from the King Maximilian Joseph in 1824, to design a centre ornament in silver for the table. It was to be of very large size, and the figures in relief, each about six inches in height, were to represent the procession of the gods of Olympus to the palace of Jupiter. So much as was executed is described as being very beautiful, but the death of Maximilian (October 1825) prevented its completion. Schwanthaler now proceeded to Rome, where he remained a year, deriving great benefit from the advice and friendship of Thorwaldsen. He carried back with him to Munich two elegant bassi-rilievi of the 'Birth of Venus' and 'Cupid and Psyche,' and through the influence of Cornelius he was employed to execute two extensive Homeric bassi rilievi friezes for the Glyptothek, then in course of construction. Among other works which about this time he produced were a statue of Shakspere for the theatre, and a grand basso-rilievo frieze, extending in all to a length of 150 feet, of the Apotheosis of Bacchus' for the dining-room of the palace of Duke Maximilian. In 1832 he again went by desire of King Ludwig to Rome, to complete Rauch's design for the south pediment of the Walhalla as well as to execute various other royal commissions for the new palace. From the period of his return in 1833 his life was one of unceasing activity. The admitted head of the sculptors of Munich, the professor of sculpture (from 1835) in the Academy there, and the favourite of the art-loving King Ludwig, whose constant guide and assistant he was in planning and working-out the sculpturesque decorations of his vast architectural undertakings, Schwanthaler produced in rapid succession an astonishing number of works of unusual magnitude and grandeur, and was the centre of a crowd of able and devoted scholars and assistants. During the few remaining years of his life, all spent in ill-health, he executed a succession of great works, such as would seem more than enough to have tasked the energy and industry of the most indefatigable and laborious workman whose days had been extended to the longest span, and who had been blessed with the most robust health. We can name but some of his more prominent works. The southern pediment of the Walhalla at Ratisbon, filled with a design intended to typify the liberation of Germany from the French, was only in part by him; but the design in the northern pediment, a later work, was wholly by himself, and was of a much higher order of merit. It is called the 'Hermann-Schlacht,' or 'Battle of Arminius,' and is one of the finest renderings of old Teutonic story which has ever been realised by the sculptor's chisel. He also executed some of the statues in the Walhalla, and the fourteen caryatides representing the Walkyren of the Teutonic mythology. For Ludwig's New Palace (Neue Königsbau), Schwanthaler not only executed several friezes and statues, but made the cartoons for numerous pictures which were painted in encaustic by Hiltensperger, Streidel, and others. Among these are a series of twenty-four compositions from Eschylus, twenty-one from Sophocles, twenty-seven from Aristophanes, a series from the tales of the Argonauts, another from the 'Works and Days' and the 'Shield of Hercules' of Hesiod. His most famous piece of sculpture here is however the 'Myth of Aphrodite,' but the story of Venus was never more coldly told. For the Fest-Saalbau he designed the two lions, and the eight figures representing the eight circles of Bavaria, on the entablature; the frieze in relief of the 'Crusade of Barbarossa' ('Der Kreuzzug des Kaisers Friedrich Barbarossa'), placed above the paintings by Schnorr [SCHNORR, JULIUS VON KAROLSFELD], one of his best works; the bassirilievi of Greek Dancers in the Ball-Room; and the twelve colossal gilt bronze statues of the princes of the House of Wittelsbach, in the Throne-Room, &c. For the façade of the Pinakothek he executed statues of twenty-five of the greatest painters. For the pediment of the New Art Exhibition Gallery (Neue Kunstanstellungs-Gebaude) he executed a representation of the Arts placing themselves under the protection of Bavaria. For the magnificent Ludwigs Kirche he modelled statues of Christ and the four Evangelists, which are placed in a row of niches over the porch, and for the ends of the gable two colossal statues of St. Peter and St. Paul. There are also by him in Munich statues, some of them of colossal size, and most of them in bronze, of Count Tilly, Field-Marshal Prince Wrede, Kreitmayer, the author of the Bavarian code, and one or two others. But the chief work with which he adorned his native city was his immense statue of Bavaria, which occupies the centre of the Bavarian Hall of Fame (Bairische Ruhmershalle). Bavaria is represented as a maiden crowned with the oak garland; one hand is stretched out, and holds a laurel crown, the reward of merit; the other presses a sword against her bosom, to defend her independence; by her side reclines a lion. The group, which is of bronze, exceeds in magnitude any other modern work. The figure of Bavaria is about 58 feet high, that of the lion is nearly 30 feet; the pedestal is 28 feet high: a staircase inside leads up to the head of Bavaria, which is large enough to contain several persons. This vast work was commenced in 1844, but neither the sculptor nor the founder of this unparalleled work [STIGLMAYER, JOHANN BAPTIST], lived to see it placed on its pedestal. It was inaugurated with great ceremony, October 9, 1850. Remarkable as this work is for its size, it is equally so for its grandeur. It was the crowning work of Schwanthaler's life, and as long as it endures it will be the most impressive monument to his genius. The Ruhmershalle however contains other proofs of his versatile imagination. In the tympana at the end of the wings of the building are four recumbent figures by him, representing the four national divisions of the kingdom, Bavaria, the Palatinate, Swabia, and Franconia; and the frieze contains 92 metopes, all of them designed by him: 44 containing figures of Victory, and the remaining 48 the arts and occupations of civilised life. Among important public works which he designed for other places may be mentioned, his grand fountain in the Neumarkt, Vienna, around the basin of which he has placed figures typifying the Enns, Ips, Traun, and March, the four principal rivers of the archduchy of Austria, pouring their waters into the Danube, which is represented by a colossal figure in the centre; another and finer fountain in the Freiung, Vienna, in which are five beautifully-designed bronze figures of Austria with her four great rivers, the Danube, Vistula, Elbe, and Po; the monument of Carl Friedrich, grand-duke of Baden, with its four allegorical figures, at Carlsruhe; monumental statues of the Emperor Rudolf von Habsburg at Spire, King Charles John of Sweden, the Grand-Duke Ludwig at Darmstadt, Mozart at Salzburg, Göthe at Frankfurt, Jean Paul Richter at Baireuth, and many more, one of the more remarkable being a series of twenty statues of eminent Bohemians for a national monument at Liborch, near Prague, which however he left unfinished. Among the works executed for private patrons we can only name his statues of Venus, Apollo, Cupid, Diana, Vesta, Ceres, Bacchus, Pan, various nymphs, and the like, from the Grecian mythology; statues and statuettes of knights and old Teutonic heroes; and a vast number of sepulchral and portrait statues, busts, and medallions, which are to be found not merely in the princely galleries and churches of Bavaria and Austria, but scattered throughout Germany, and occasionally in England. Ludwig Schwanthaler died-his feeble frame, it is said, literally worn out by his unceasing labour-on the 17th of November 1848, baving only a few months before completed his forty-sixth year. The above very incomplete enumeration of his works will more than suffice to show the wonderful energy and industry of the man; but it is necessary to examine the works themselves to form a just estimate of his various and apparently inexhaustible genius. It will not of course be supposed however that he accomplished the impossible task of carving all these works with his own chisel. From the establishment of his studio at Munich he had about him a large body of pupils, some of whom have since come to be among the more eminent of living German sculptors, and to them was in most instances entrusted the duty of carrying out the designs of the master. But Schwanthaler himself was a rapid, often an impatient designer, and hence, the imperfect design being left to be completed by insufficiently-experienced assistants, it often happens in his less important works that there is an absence of finish, an appearance of carelessness even, which is disappointing to the spectator and injurious to the reputation of the sculptor. Schwanthaler's strength is seen in his realisation of old Teutonic fable and history, like his Hermann Schlacht, or those types of German ideas, such as he has so grandly presented in his 'Bavaria.' Among the Grecian deities he falls into the old conventionalisms, or Germanises the Hellenic thought. By his will Schwanthaler bequeathed to the Munich Academy of the Fine Arts his studio, with models of all the principal works executed by him. The studio stands opposite to the house in which he died, in the street named in honour of him, the Schwanthalerstrasse, and in it is carefully preserved the extensive collection of his works. It is open daily to the public, and is one of the great art-sights of the German metropolis of art. The Crystal Palace at Sydenham contains casts of the head of the colossal ‘Bavaria,' the ‘Shield of Hercules,' and several other of Schwanthaler's productions. SCHWARZ, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH, was born October 26, 1726, at Sonnenburg, in the Prussian province of Brandenburg. He was educated at the schools of Sonnenburg and Cüstrin till his twentieth year, when he entered the University of Halle, where he obtained the friendship of Herman Francke, who was a warm supporter of missionary labours. Schwarz and another student were appointed to learn the Tamul, in order to superintend the printing of a Bible in that language, which however was not carried into effect; but the knowledge of the Tamul which Schwarz had acquired induced Francke to propose to him that he should go out to India as a missionary. Schwarz had been educated with a view to the Christian ministry: his own religious impressions had early seconded the wishes of his father, and the proposal of Francke was immediately acceded to. Having been ordained at Copenhagen, he embarked at London, January 21, 1750, and in July arrived at Tranquebar, on the Coromandel Coast, the appointed scene of his labours, and the seat of a Danish mission. Schwarz continued to reside chiefly at Tranquebar, and to labour with the Danish mission till 1766, when he devoted his services to the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, to which the Danish mission was soon afterwards transferred. He now took up his abode at Trichinopoly, where he had founded a church and school in 1765. Here he performed the duties of chaplain to the garrison, for which he received 100l. a year, a sum which he devoted entirely to the service of the mission. Schwarz continued to reside for several years at Trichinopoly, occasionally visiting other places, especially Tanjore. Small congregations of Hindoo converts gradually grew up under his care, and in 1777 another missionary was sent from Tranquebar to assist him. His visits to Tanjore now became more frequent, and he obtained the friendship of the raja Tulia Maha, who gave him leave to build a church in Tanjore. He proceeded with the work till his funds were exhausted, when he applied to the presidency of Madras for assistance. In reply he was requested to proceed immediately to the seat of government in order to receive the appointment of ambassador, for the purpose of treating with Hyder Ali for the continuance of peace, a task for which he was summoned by Hyder himself. "Do not send to me," said Hyder, "any of your agents, for I do not trust their words or treaties; but if you wish me to listen to your proposals, send to me the missionary of whose character I hear so much from every one: him I will receive and trust." Schwarz was startled by the novelty of the proposal, but after requesting time to consider of it, he accepted the offer. He proceeded to Sering apatam, and resided at the court of Hyder for three months. His mission was entirely successful; the terms of peace were settled, and he then returned to Tanjore. The peace however was of short continuance, and Schwarz complained that the British were guilty of the infraction. Hyder invaded the Carnatic, and during the years 1781, 1782, and 1783 the sufferings of the inhabitants were dreadful; they fled to the towns for protec tion; Tanjore and Trichinopoly were crowded with starving multitudes; at Tanjore especially numbers died in the streets of famine and disease, and the garrison itself was enfeebled by want, and dispirited by knowing that a powerful army was outside the walls. There were provisions in the country, but the exactions both of the British and the Raja had destroyed the confidence of the cultivators, and they would not bring them to the fort. At length the Raja said, "We have lost all our credit. Let us try whether the inhabitants will trust Mr. Schwarz." Schwarz was accordingly empowered to treat with the cultivators. He sent out letters, in which he promised not only to pay for what was brought in, but for any bullock which might be taken by the enemy. In two or three days a thousand bullocks were obtained, and in a short time 80,000 kalams of grain. By this means the town was saved. In 1784 the East India government sent Schwarz on a mission to Tippoo Saib, but the son of Hyder would not receive him. Another church was built in the neighbourhood of Tanjore, which the increase of his congregation had rendered necessary; and in 1785 he engaged in a scheme for the establishment of schools throughout the country for the purpose of teaching the natives the English language, which was carried into effect at Tanjore and other places; and the good faith and good sense with which Schwarz conducted them, no deceitful methods' being used to bring over the pupils, who were chiefly children of the upper classes, to the doctrines of Christ, proved highly beneficial, not only from the instruction and moral principles communicated, but from the confidence and good feeling which were created in the natives generally. In 1787 the Raja of Tanjore lay at the point of death. He had adopted as his successor a boy yet in his minority, and now sent for his friend Schwarz as the only person to whom he could with confidence entrust him. "He is not my son, but yours," said the dying Raja; "into your hands I deliver him." Ameer Sing, brother of Tulia Maha, was appointed regent and guardian; but he was disposed to be treacherous, and he was supported by a strong British party; so that it required all Schwarz's care and influence with the East India Company to establish the young prince in the possession of his inheritance. Maha Sarbojee, the raja, some years afterwards manifested his filial affection for his tutor and protector by erecting a monument to his memory in the mission church at Tanjore, on which the Raja is represented as grasping the hand of the dying missionary, and receiving his blessing. The monument is by Flaxman. The success of Schwarz in the education of his pupil is shown by the terms in which Bishop Heber spoke of him (the Raja) in 1826. Heber calls him "an extraordinary man," and says that he quoted Fourcroy, Lavoisier, Linnæus, and Buffon fluently, that he had formed an accurate judgment of the merits of Shakspere, that he wrote tolerable 347 66 SCHWARZENBERG, PRINCE OF. English poetry, and was "respected by the English officers in the SCIOPPIUS, CASPAR. 348 the natural phenomena of the island, and he published the results of his observations. He gave an account of the eruption of Ætna of 1811, in two letters: Lettere scritte da Catania à Monsignor Grano in Messina.' He wrote on the currents of the straits of Messina : 'Memoria sù i Fili Reflui, e i Vortici apparenti dello Stretto di Messina,' in which he gave a better explanation of them than either Spallanzani or Brocchi has done. In 1818 he published an interesting Topografia di Palermo e de' suoi Contorni,' in which he describes the physical geography of the tract, its geological and mineral formation, For several years Schwarz's labours in the conversion of the Hindoos its vegetable and animal productions, and its meteorology, the whole were apparently attended with little success, which was not owing to accompanied by a map. In the following year he was sent to explore persecution or opposition, but almost entirely to the peculiar mental the mountainous group called Monti Madonie, the ancient Nebrodes, character of the natives of India, cool, subtle, fond of argument, and which rises in the centre of the island, especially with regard to the slow to be convinced; but the effect of his preaching and the influence frequent earthquakes to which that region is subject, and he wrote a of his virtuous and disinterested life were attended by a slow but Rapporto del Viaggio alle Madonie, intrapreso per Ordine del Governo,' steady advance of the cause of Christianity. Congregations were Palermo, 1819. In 1823 he went on a like mission to the district of formed in numerous villages, and preachers were established at Cadda- Ogliastro, near Termini, where an earthquake had made ravages, and lore, Negapatam, and other towns, besides those at the earlier stations among other things had affected the springs of the mineral waters of Tranquebar, Trichinopoly, and Tanjore. The memory of Schwarz from which the town of Termini takes its name. He wrote two is regarded with a feeling of veneration both by Mohammedans and reports on the subject, which were inserted in the Sicilian 'Giornale unconverted Hindoos, as well as by the Christian converts. Bishop di Scienze, Lettere, ed Arti.' In 1830, on the occasion of some fossil Heber says of him ('Journey through the Upper Provinces of India'), remains found in the neighbourhood of Palermo, Scinà wrote a that "he was one of the most active and fearless, as he was one of the Rapporto sull' Ossa Fossili di Mardolce e degli altri Contorni di most successful missionaries who have appeared since the Apostles. To Palermo,' which attracted much attention. When a volcanic island say that he was disinterested in regard of money is nothing; he was per- arose suddenly off the southern coast of Sicily, Scinà was sent to fectly careless of power, and renown never seemed to affect him, even so examine the new phenomenon, and he wrote a Breve Ragguaglio del far as to induce an outward show of humility. His temper was perfectly novello Vulcano.' Scinà was not neglected by the Sicilian governsimple, open, and cheerful, and in his political negociations (employment. Both King Ferdinand and his successor King Francis bestowed ments which he never sought, but which fell in his way) he never pre their favour upon him. In 1815 he was appointed historiographer of tended to impartiality, but acted as the avowed though certainly the Sicily. In 1822 he was made chancellor of the University of Palermo, successful and judicious agent of the orphan prince committed to his and a member of the commission of public instruction and education for the whole island. In 1823 he was made curator of the public SCHWARZENBERG, KARL PHILIP, PRINCE OF, Field-Mar- library of Palermo, and also rector of the Educandario delle Nobili shal of the Austrian armies, was born at Vienna, April 15, 1771. Donzelle,' or 'House of Education for young Ladies of Rank.' In During the war against the Turks, 1789, he gave proof of so much 1828 King Francis presented him to the abbacy of S. Angelo di Brolo, discipline and zeal, as to obtain for him the command of part of the and in the following year gave him the decoration of his own order. van-guard of the Prince of Coburg, in the campaign of 1792. Soon Scinà was also the author of the following works: 1, 'Introduzione after, on the 26th of April, 1794, at the combat of Chateau-Cambresis, alla Fisica Sperimentale,' 1803, a work which established his reputation he placed himself at the head of a cavalry regiment and a body of as a man of science. 2, Elementi di Fisica.' 3, Elogio di Francesco English troops, with which he cut his way through a corps of 27,000 Maurolico,' a distinguished mathematician of Messina in the 16th French soldiers. For this exploit he was made a colonel; in 1797, he century. 4, 'Memorie sulla Vita e Filosofia di Empedocle, Girgenbecame a major-general. tino,' in 2 vols. 8vo, Palermo, 1813, a work more concise but not less accurate and interesting than that of F. W. Sturz, Leipzig, 1805, on the same subject. Scina's book is divided into four parts: the first treats of the time in which Empedocles lived; the second is a biography of the Argentine philosopher; the third treats of his philosophy; and the fourth is a collection of the fragments of his works translated into Italian. 5, Discorso intorno ad Archimede.' 6, 'I Frammenti della Gastronomia d'Archestrato,' Palermo, 1823, with a biography of that ancient and little-known Sicilian poet. 7, 'Prospetto delia Storia Letteraria di Sicilia.' This is one of Scina's most esteemed works, although it bears a very modest title. 8, Lettera al Padre Piazzi intorno a Girolamo Settimo, Matematico Palermitano.' 9, 'Esperienze e Scoverte sull' Elettro-magnetismo.' Scinà died of the Asiatic cholera, which afflicted Palermo in July 1837. He was one of the most learned men that modern Sicily has produced. (Tipaldo, Biografia degli Italiani Illustri; Mortillaro, Sulla Vita e sù le Opere dell' Abate Domenico Scinà, Palermo, 1837.) care." In 1799, having raised a regiment of Hulans at his own cost, his own name, which it still bears, was given to it; the same year, he was appointed lieutenant-field-marshal. He was present at the dreadful defeat of Hohenlinden, so honourable to Moreau, but he saved his own corps. The battle of Austerlitz (December 2, 1805), was fought contrary to the advice of Schwarzenberg, who strongly urged the necessity of waiting for the arrival of Benningsen and the Archduke Charles. Conformably with the wishes of the Emperor Alexander, Schwarzenberg was sent to the court of St. Petersburg, as ambassador, in 1808. He distinguished himself greatly at the battle of Wagram, in 1809, and during the retreat he commanded the rearguard. In 1810, he was appointed general of the Austrian cavalry. Whilst the preliminary measures were in progress for the marriage of Napoleon with the Archduchess Maria Louisa, he was selected to conduct the negociations on the part of Austria. His government now became the ally of France, and having furnished an auxiliary force of 30,000 troops to sustain the expedition against Russia, in 1812, this general was placed at its head. The reluctance with which Schwarzenberg acted under the Emperor Napoleon was often complained of during this disastrous campaign, and is still the subject of censure in most of the French historians; but he is now generally understood to have submitted to private instructions from his own government. He was however created field-marshal for his services in this war, at the express desire of Napoleon. Shortly before the great battle of Leipzig, October 18, 1813, he was appointed commander-in-chief of the allied armies then confederated against France; and on that day beheld the fine army of Napoleon almost annihilated. In the campaign of 1814, he entered the French territory, and adopting a cautious system was often opposed to the active tactics of Prince Blücher, who proposed an immediate advance upon the capital. Nevertheless he consented at last to this decision on the 24th of March; after which he entered the city on the 31st, when Marmont had capitulated. The remainder of his career passed away without any noticeable events, except the honours which the Emperor of Austria heaped upon him. He was made minister of war, received a grant of extensive lands in Hungary, and was allowed to engrave the Imperial arms of Austria on his family escutcheon. Having been thrown from his horse, he was attacked by apoplexy, which produced a fatal result, on the 15th of October, 1820. SCINA, DOMENICO, was born at Palermo in 1765. He studied in his native town under Rosario Gregorio and other good masters, and became a proficient in classical erudition. He afterwards applied himself to the study of the mathematical and physical sciences, and to these the remainder of his life was chiefly devoted. In 1796 he was appointed professor of physics in the University of Palermo. He was repeatedly sent by the government to various parts of Sicily to explore SCIOPPIUS, CASPAR, was born on the 27th of May 1576, at Neumark in the Palatinate (Pfalz). His family was poor; but although he attacked Scaliger for his pretensions, he was very anxious to be considered of noble descent. At the age of seventeen he published some Latin poems, which were very favourably received. After the completion of his studies, he travelled into Italy, and in 1589 he was at Ferrara, where he wrote a panegyric on Pope Clemens VIII. and the king of Spain. The pope became his protector and patron, and Scioppius followed him to Rome, where he renounced the Protestant religion, and the pope gave him the title of a knight of St. Peter, and soon afterwards made him Comes Apostolicus de Claravalle. In consequence of his conversion, Scioppius studied theology, and published several little works, partly to justify his own conduct and partly to support the cause of the pope against the Protestants. But the study of ancient literature was not neglected: he also published an edition of Varro, 'De Ling. Lat.,' Ingoldstadt, 8vo, 1605; Commen. taries on Appuleius and the Priapea,' Frankfurt, 12mo, 1606, and reprinted at Padua, 8vo, 1664, with notes of Scaliger and Lindenbrog. Scioppius had hitherto been well disposed towards Jos. Scaliger, but some remarks respecting his conversion to Catholicism, and Scaliger's letter to Douza, provoked the enmity of Scioppius, which was displayed in his Scaliger Hypobolimæus, hoc est, Elenchus Epistolæ Joan. Burdonis, pseudo-Scaligeri, de Vetustate et Splendore Gentis Scaligeræ,' 4to, Maynz, 1607. In this book he ridiculed with the bitterest satire the pretensions of Scaliger, and attacked King Henry IV. of France for having granted civil liberty to the Protestants. As the book was against Protestants in general, the dispute was taken up by several persons of both parties, and was carried on for many years. In 1608 Scioppius published several other works against the Protestants. In the year following he travelled to Italy, and at Venice, which was involved in some dispute with the pope, Scioppius endeavoured to persuade Paolo Sarpi to join the party of the pope. The consequence of this attempt was that Scioppius was thrown into prison; but being soon restored to liberty, he visited Vienna, where he found a more favourable reception. The emperor not only made him councillor to his court, but raised him to the rank of count palatine. In 1611 he published two works, one called 'Ecclesiasticus Autoritati Ser. D. Jacobi, Magnæ Britanniæ regis, oppositus,' Hartberg, in 4to; and the other called 'Collyrium Regium, Ser. D. Jacobo, Magna Britanniæ regi, graviter oculis laboranti, omnium Catholicorum Nomine, gratæ voluntatis causa, muneri misum; una cum Syntagmate de Cultu et Honore,' in 8vo. Both books were mainly directed against King James I. of England, but the first also contained fresh attacks on Henry IV. of France. In Paris and in London the books were publicly burnt by the hangman, and in London Scioppius was hanged in effigy (1612). Scioppius returned to Italy, but after a short stay there he went in 1613 to Madrid. Here he became acquainted with the gram. matical work of Sanchez, commonly known under the name of 'Sanctii Minerva,' which turned his attention to grammatical speculations, and which he subsequently made known in other parts of Europe. He had not been long in Madrid when one evening he was dreadfully beaten by some servants of the English ambassador, who, it is possible, had ordered his servants to punish Scioppius for his insolence towards his royal master. Scioppius, not thinking himself safe in Spain, fled to Ingolstadt, where he published his Legatus Latro,' addressed against the English ambassador. Casaubon had defended the King of England, and this circumstance gave Scioppius an opportunity of resuming his warfare against the Protestants. In 1617 Scioppius again went to Italy, and settled at Milan, ever continuing his bitter enmity against the Protestants, who, as he now declared, ought all to be exterminated, with their women and children. This proclamation of a religious war is contained in his 'Classicum Belli Sacri, sive Heldus redivivus,' Pavia, 1619. When his rage had become exhausted he returned for a time to philological studies, and wrote several very good grammatical works; but this quiet mode of life did not suit his quarrelsome temper. In 1630 he returned to Germany, and requested from the diet of Regensburg a pension for his services, which being refused through the influence of the Jesuits, he became the most furious enemy of their whole order, though he had 7 before frequently lent them his support. His first works against the Jesuits appeared without his name, but in 1634 he attacked them openly in a work called 'Astrologia Ecclesiastica.' When he saw that J his own life became endangered by these ferocious attacks he retired to Padua, where he began to occupy himself with writing a commentary on the Apocalypse; but before he had completed this work he died, on the 19th of November 1649. Scioppius was a man of immense learning, of a prodigious memory, and of great acuteness. In his knowledge of the Latin language he had no equal. With his talents and learning he might have been as great a man as Jos. Scaliger; but his quarrelsome disposition, his strong inclination to satire, and his intolerance, constantly involved him in disputes which reflect discredit upon his character. There are nevertheless among his numerous works some which are still very useful to scholars, especially those on the Latin language. The num ber of his works is stated to be 104, but he did not publish them all under his real name; many appeared under the fictitious names Nicodemus Macer, Oporinus Grubinius, Pascasius Grosippus, Holofernes Krigsæderus, Mariangelus a Fano, and others. The following list contains the most important of his works which have not been already mentioned:-' Verisimilium Libri Quatuor, in quibus multa veterum Scriptorum loca emendantur, augentur, et illustrantur,' 8vo, Nürnberg, 1595, and Amsterdam, 1662; 'Suspectarum Lectionum Libri Quinque, in quibus amplius ducentis locis Plautus, plurimis Appuleius, Diomedes Grammaticus, et alii, corriguntur,' 8vo, Nürnberg, 1597, and Amsterdam, 1664; 'De Arte Critica et præcipue de altera ejus parte emendatrice, quænam ratio in Lat. Scriptoribus ex ingenio emendandis observari debeat Commentariolus,' 8vo, Nürnberg, 1597, and Amsterdam, 1662; 'Elementa Philosophie Stoicæ Moralis,' 8vo, Maynz, 1606; Grammatica Philosophica, sive Institutiones Grammatica Latina,' 8vo, Milan, 1628 (a new edition with additions appeared at Amsterdam, 8vo, 1664, and another at Franeker in 1704); Paradoxa Literaria, in quibus multa de literis nova contra Ciceronis, Varronis, Quinctiliani, aliorumque literatorum hominum, tam veterum quam recentiorum, sententiam disputantur,' 8vo, Milan, 1628, and Amsterdam, 1659 (this work was published under the assumed name of Pascasius Grosippus); 'Auctarium ad Grammaticam Philosophicam, ejusque Rudimenta,' 8vo, Milan, 1629, and Amsterdam, 1664 (published under the name of Mariangelus a Fano); Arcana Societatis Jesu publico bono vulgata, cum Appendicibus utilissimis,' 8vo, 1635; Consultationes de Schola rum et Studiorum Ratione, deque Prudentiæ et Eloquentiæ parandæ Modis,' 12mo, Padua, 1836, and 8vo, Amsterdam, 1660 and 1665: Mercurius Quadrilinguis, id est, de Linguarum ac nominatim Latinæ, Germanicæ, Græcæ, et Hebraea nova et compendiaria Discendi Ratione,' 8vo, Basel, 1637. Scioppius also wrote notes on the 'Minerva' of Sanctius, which first appeared at Padua in 1663, and which have subsequently been incorporated in the various editions of the Minerva.' SCIPIO is the name of a family belonging to the patrician gens SCIPIO. 860 Cornelia. This illustrious family produced some of the greatest men in Roman history; we shall subjoin a complete list of those members of the family whose names have been handed down by historical records. The first Scipio mentioned in Roman history is 1. P. CORNELIUS SCIPIO, whom, in B.c. 396, the dictator Camillus appointed master of the horse. (Liv., v. 19.) The Fasti of this year however do not mention him, but state that P. Cornelius Maluginensis was the magister equitum of Camillus. A short time afterwards (B.c. 394) Scipio is mentioned among the military tribunes (Liv., v. 24), and a second time in the following year. (Liv., v. 26.) In the year B.C. 389 he was appointed interrex (Liv., v. 31), and two years after he held the same office a second time. 2. P. CORNELIUS SCIPIO is mentioned as one of the first curule ædiles, which office was instituted in B.C. 366. He is probably the same man who was magister equitum under Manlius, B.C. 350. (Liv., vii. 24.) 3. L. CORNELIUS SCIPIO was interrex in B.C. 352. (Liv., vii. 21.) 4. P. CORNELIUS SCIPIO BARBATUS was, according to the Fast. Cons, consul with C. Plautius in the year B.C. 328; but Livy (viii. 22) calls the colleague of Plautius P. Cornelius Scapula. Scipio Barbatus was made dictator in B.c. 306, to hold the comitia for the election of the consuls, for the actual consuls were engaged in a war against the Samnites. (Liv., ix. 44.) A year later he appears as pontifex maximus. (Liv., ix. 46.) 5. L. CORNELIUS SCIPIO was consul B.C. 298, and gained a victory over the Etruscans in the neighbourhood of Fregellæ. (Liv., x. 12.) He is probably the same who, three years afterwards (B.c. 295), appears in another war against the Etruscans; and was left as proprætor at the head of the Roman camp while the prætor Appius went to Rome. (Liv., x. 25, 26.) 6. CN. CORNELIUS SCIPIO ASINA. He is the first member of the family from whom we are able to trace the pedigree of the Scipios with certainty. The story about the origin of his surname Asina is related by Macrobius. (Sat.,' i. 6.) He was consul at the time of the first Punic war (B.C. 260), together with C. Duilius, and obtained the command of the fleet; but in his attempt to take the island of Liparæ, he was blocked up by the Carthaginians with seventeen vessels in a port of the island. His soldiers escaped on land, but Scipio himself surrendered to the enemy. (Polyb., i. 21.) Livy (Epit.,' 17) gives another account of the manner in which he was made prisoner. He must however have obtained his liberty soon after, for he was consul a second time in the year B.C. 254 (Val. Max., vi. 9, 11), with A. Atilius Calatinus. He and his colleague took Panormus, the largest town in the Carthaginian part of Sicily, and then returned to Rome in triumph. (Polyb., i. 38.) Further particulars of his life are not known. 7. P. CORNELIUS SCIPIO ASINA, son of Cn. Cornelius Scipio Asina. He was consul, in B.C. 221, with M. Minucius Rufus, and made a successful campaign against the Istri, who harassed the Romans by their piracy. (Oros., iv. 13.) Four years after (B.C. 217) he was appointed interrex, to hold the comitia for electing the consuls. (Liv., xxii. 34.) In the year B.C. 211, when the news arrived that Hannibal was advancing with his army towards Rome, it was Scipio's advice to give up all Italy, and to draw all the armies within the walls of the city. (Liv., xxvi. 8.) 8. L. CORNELIUS SCIPIO, a brother of Cn. Cornelius Scipio Asina. He was consul in B.C. 259, with C. Aquillius Florus. He put the fleet of the Carthaginians to flight, and attacked them in Corsica and Sardinia, and destroyed the towns of Aleria and Olbia. For these services he was honoured with a triumph. (Liv., 'Epit.,' 17; Flor., ii. 2, 16; Val. Max., v. 1, 2.) The year after his consulship (B.C. 258) he is mentioned in the 'Fast. Cap.' as censor. 9. P. CORNELIUS SCIPIO, son of L. Cornelius Scipio. He was consul in the first year of the second Punic war (B.C. 218). While his colleague T. Sempronius Longus was sent with the fleet to Sicily, Scipio went to Spain; but when he heard that Hannibal was already preparing to cross the Rhodanus (Rhône), he returned by sea to Massilia. The sufferings of his soldiers from this voyage prevented him from going up the Rhône immediately; and when, after the lapse of three days, he set out to meet Hannibal, the latter had already advanced into the interior of Gaul. Scipio therefore sent a part of his troops, under his brother Cneius, who was his legate, to Spain, and with the rest he embarked for Italy, to join the other Roman forces there, and to attack Hannibal on his descent from the Alps. An engagement between the Carthaginian and Roman horse took place on the Ticinus, in which the Romans were defeated, and Scipio was wounded, and compelled to retire across the river Po. He took up a position near Placentia, but he was induced by the Gauls to fortify himself on the Trebia, and to wait for the arrival of Sempronius, who had been called back from Sicily. When the latter arrived, Scipio, still suffering from his wound, advised him not to engage in a battle with Hannibal; but Sempronius, anxious to strike a decisive blow, and seeing that the enemy only profited by delay, offered battle. He was defeated, and the Carthaginians became masters of nearly the whole of Northern Italy. (Polyb., iii. 40, &c.; Liv., xxi. 32, &c.) In the summer of the year B.C. 217, Scipio, whose imperium was prolonged at the end of his consulship, went to Spain with a fleet of 20 ships and 8000 land-troops (Polyb., iii. 97), to join his brother Cneius, who had already acheived important things in that country. His intention was to drive the Carthaginians from Spain, and thus to cut off the supplies which Hannibal was to receive from that quarter. Cneius on his arrival from Massilia had landed at Emporium, and soon after the greater part of the eastern coast of Spain declared for him. His mildness also induced several of the inland tribes, who were discontented with the oppressive rule of the Carthaginians, to join the Romans. A battle near the town of Scissis, in which the Carthaginians were defeated and their general Hanno taken prisoner, made the Romans masters of nearly the whole country between the Iberus (Ebr) and the Pyrenees. Cneius now took up his winterquarters at Tarraco (Tarragona). (Liv., xxi. 60, &c.; Polyb., iii. 76.) In the year following, a short time before his brother Publius arrived, Cneius defeated the Carthaginian fleet in the mouth of the Iberus. (Liv., xxii. 20; Polyb., iii. 96, &c.) About the middle of the summer Publius arrived, and the two brothers marched against Saguntum, where Hannibal had left the Spanish hostages on his setting out towards Gaul. The treachery of a Spaniard, called Abelux or Abilyx, delivered them up to the Scipios, who wisely sent them home to their relatives, and thus gained a hold on the affections of a great number of Spanish tribes, who gladly shook off the yoke of the Carthaginians. In B.C. 216 the Scipios gained a victory at Ibera over Hasdrubal, who, after the arrival of a fresh Carthaginian army under Himilco, intended to make a landing in Italy and to support his brother there. The whole army of Hasdrubal was defeated and routed, his camp was taken, and he himself escaped with only a few followers. (Liv., xxiii. 28, &c.) The Spaniards, who had been heavily taxed by the Carthaginians, willingly submitted to the Romans, but the Scipios knew the fickleness of the Spaniards, and, in order to keep up friendly relations with them, they did not levy any heavy contributions, but applied to the senate at Rome to provide them with the means of supporting their armies. In the meanwhile Mago arrived with another army from Africa, and laid siege to the revolted town of Illiturgi on the Baetis. Here again the Scipios gained a great victory, and soon after another near Intibili, where the Carthaginians on their flight from Illiturgi had taken refuge. In the year B.C. 214 the important town of Castulo deserted the cause of the Carthaginians and joined the Romans, and when the former made a new attempt against Illiturgi, they were beaten by Cneius, and completely defeated in the neighbourhood of Munda. They were not more successful in several other attempts. During the following year the Carthaginians were engaged in a war in Africa against Syphax, and the Scipios had time to strengthen themselves in Spain. But the uninterrupted series of brilliant victories of the Scipios was now at an end. În B.C. 212 the Carthaginians resumed the war in Spain, and took 20,000 Celtiberians into their pay. Publius Scipio commanded two-thirds of the Roman forces, and was arrayed against Mago, Hasdrubal, son of Gisco (who were supported by Massinissa), and the Spanish chief Indibilis. Cneius was opposed to Hasdrubal Barcas. Publius, in his assault on the ranks of Indibilis, was cut down with the greater part of his army. His brother Cneius, abandoned by the faithless Celtiberians, withdrew as far as he could. From the manoeuvres of the enemy, he conjectured the fate of his brother. On his retreat he found himself at last compelled to make a stand upon a hill which was of such a nature that it was impossible for him to fortify himself. Nearly the whole of his army was cut to pieces, and Cneius himself fell among the rest, 29 days after the death of his brother. The catastrophe took place in the spring of the year B.C. 211. (Becker, Vorarbeiten zu einer Geschichte des Zweiten Punischen Krieges,' in Dahlmann's 'Forschungen,' ii. 2, p. 113.) 10. CN. CORNELIUS SCIPIO CALVUS, the brother of P. Corn. Scipio (No. 9). His exploits in Spain bave just been described. He was consul, in B.C. 222, with M. Claudius Marcellus, with whom he made an expedition against the Insubrians, and took Acerra and Mediolanum. (Polyb., ii. 34; Plut., 'Marcell.,' 6.) At the beginning of the second Pupic war he went, as we have seen, to Spain as legate to his brother Publius. 11. P. CORNELIUS SCIPIO AFRICANUS MAJOR, the son of P. Cornelius Scipio (No. 9). If it be true that at the age of seventeen he fought in the battle of the Ticinus (B.c. 218), and rescued his wounded father, he must have been born in B.C. 235. He was in the battle of Cannæ (B.C. 216) as a tribune, and was among those who after the defeat escaped to Canusium. Here the chief command of the remaining troops was unanimously entrusted to him and Appius Claudius Pulcher. (Liv., xxii. 53.) On this occasion it was owing to his presence of mind that the remnants of the Roman army did not in their despair quit Italy. (Val. Max., v. 6, 7.) In B.C. 212 Scipio was curule ædile, though he had not yet attained the legitimate age. The tribunes of the people endeavoured to prevent his election, but they were obliged to give up their opposition, for the people, who seem to have perceived the extraordinary abilities of the young man, elected him almost unanimously. (Liv., xxv. 2.) In B.C. 211 his father and uncle fell in Spain, and the Carthaginians again took possession of the country, which they had almost entirely lost. When Capua had fallen again into their hands, and Italy no longer required their exclusive attention, the Romans determined to act with more energy against the Carthaginians in Spain. On the day of the election, no one ventured to come forward to undertake the command in this war. Young Scipio, then scarcely twenty-four years of age, at last offered to take the command of the army in Spain. The people were struck with admiration at the courage of the young man, and gave him the command, with proconsular power, which was afterwards prolonged to him for several years (B.C. 210-206). The extraordinary power which young Scipio exercised over his contemporaries was perhaps partly owing to superstition, for he was believed to be a favourite of the gods. Ever since he had taken the toga virilis, he went every morning into the Capitol, where he spent some hours in solitude and meditation. Hence all he did was considered by the people to be the result of his intercourse with the gods. Scipio himself partook in this opinion, and cherished it; an the extraordinary success of all his enterprises must have strengthen d his belief. Towards the end of the summer, in B.C. 210, or, as Livy (xxvi. 41) says, at the beginning of spring, Scipio set out for Spain with an army of 11,000 men, lauded at the mouth of the Iberus, and undertook the command of the whole Roman forces in Spain. He was accompanied by his friend Lælius. His first object was to gain possession of New Carthage, where the Carthaginians kept their Spanish hostages. Lælius made the attack with the fleet from the sea-side, while Scipio conducted the operations on land. The town soon fell into the hands of the Romans, and the generosity with which Scipio treated the Spanish hostages gained over a great number of Spaniards. The hostages of those tribes who declared themselves allies of the Romans were sent home without ransom. A short time after the conquest of this place Scipio went to Tarraco, where he received embassies from various Spanish tribes, who offered to become the allies of the Romans or to recognise their supremacy. Scipio is said not to have set out against Hasdrubal until the year following, but it can scarcely be conceived why the Carthaginians should have been so long inactive, and it is a probable supposition that the battle with Hasdrubal, which Livy and Polybius assign to the year B.C. 209, was fought very soon after the taking of New Carthage. (Zonaras, ix. 8.) In this battle Scipio gained a great victory; 8000 Carthaginians were slain, and 22,000, with their camp, fell into the hands of the victor. Many of the Spaniards now wished to proclaim Scipio their king, but he refused the honour. (Liv., xxvii. 19; Polyb., x. 40.) Hasdrubal fled with the remainder of his army towards the Tagus and the Pyrenees. Scipio did not follow him, partly because he thought his enemy too much weakened to be dangerous, and partly because he feared lest he might expose himself to the combined attacks of the two other Carthaginian generals, Mago, and Hasdrubal, son of Gisco. Hasdrubal Barcas, the defeated general, however, had carried considerable wealth with him in his flight, and with these means he raised an army in Spain, to lead into Italy to the assistance of his brother Hannibal, hoping thus to bring the war to an end in Italy. During these preparations of Hasdrubal, Scipio was engaged against the two other Carthaginian generals, one of whom (Mago) was defeated, in B.C. 208, by the proprætor Silanus, in the country of the Celtiberians, and Hanno, who came with an auxiliary army from Africa, was taken prisoner. After this success of the proprætor, Scipio united his forces with those of Silanus to attack Hasdrubal, son of Gisco. But as this general had retired to the south of Spain, and had distributed his army in the fortified places on the Bætis as far as Gades, Scipio (through his brother Lucius) only took the important town of Oringis, and then gradually returned across the Iberus. The power of the Carthaginians in Spain was however already broken, and in the year following (B.C. 207) Scipio gained possession of nearly all Spain by a victory, the place of which is not clearly ascertained, some calling it Silpia or Bæcula, some Ilipa, and others Carmo. Scipio, now in the almost undisputed possession of Spain, began to turn his eyes to Africa, and, accompanied by his friend Lælius, he ventured to pay a visit to King Syphax, with whom Lælius had already commenced negociations. Here Scipio is said to have met Hasdrubal, son of Gisco, and to have made a very favourable impression on Syphax as well as on Hasdrubal. After a short stay in Africa, Scipio returned to Spain, where he first punished several towns for their faithlessness, and subdued some of the Spanish chiefs who ventured to claim their former independence. During these occupations Scipio was attacked by a severe illness, from which however he recovered in time to quell an insurrection of 8000 Roman soldiers, who were discontented from not having derived from their conquests those advantages which they had expected, and who are said also to have been bribed by the Carthaginians. Mago had in the meantime withdrawn to the Balearic Islands, and thence to Liguria. Gades, the last place which the Carthaginians possessed in Spain, was now taken from them, and thus the war in Spain was at an end. Towards the close of the year B.C. 206, Scipio surrendered the command of the Roman forces in Spain to the proconsuls L. Lentulus and L. Manlius Acidinus, and returned to Rome, (Liv., xxviii. 38.) He delivered to the ærarium the immense treasures which he brought from Spain. He evidently wished for a triumph, but the senate paid no attention to his wishes, for no one had ever triumphed at Rome before he had held the consulship. In the year B.C. 205, Scipio was made consul with P. Licinius Crassus, who was at the same time pontifex maximus, and was consequently not allowed to leave Italy. If there fore a war was to be carried on abroad, the command necessarily devolved upon Scipio. His wish was immediately to sail with an |