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RASPAIL, FRANÇOIS-VINCENT.

8. 'On the Age and Authenticity of the Zend-avesta,' Copenhagen, 1826, was translated into German by F. H. von der Hagen, Berlin, 1826; 3. A small 'Grammar and Vocabulary of the Acra Language.' In the last year of his life he finished a very complete Grammar of the Language of Lapland. A number of essays on linguistic subjects appeared in various journals, and in Vater's Vergleichungstafeln there is one on 'Die Thrakische Sprachlasse,' which is of great importance and interest. Comparative philology is greatly indebted to Rask; for he was the first who pointed out the connection between the ancient northern and Gothic on the one hand, and of the Lithuanian, Slavonic, Greek, and Latin on the other hand.

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* RASPAIL, FRANÇOIS-VINCENT, is almost equally well known in the departments of science and of French politics. He was born at Carpentras, in the department of Vaucluse, on January 29, 1794. He very early evinced a decided inclination for the study of botany and chemistry, in both of which he made observations that were communicated to and inserted in the scientific journals of France. In 1825 he became editor of the natural history department of the 'Bulletin des Sciences.' In 1829, in conjunction with Saigey, he commenced the Annales des Sciences d'Observation,' but which was given up in the following year for want of support. His strong political feelings however had been displayed even earlier, and in 1822 he had published Sainte Liberté ! ton nom n'est pas blasphème,' and the revolution of July 1830 gave his mind a decided bias. against Charles X., he fought at the barricades, inscribed his name as a He took an active part member of the artillery brigade of the National Guard, and supported republican principles with all his might. Philippe to the throne was consequently disagreeable to Raspail, who The elevation of Louisopposed the government measures generally, and wrote articles in the Tribune,' for which at length he was prosecuted, and sentenced to six months' imprisonment. After his release he was again arrested in 1834 as a member of illegal associations, but as nothing could be proved against him he was quickly set at liberty, and he then became chief editor of the Reformateur,' which however had but a short existence. During these eventful periods he by no means neglected his scientific labours. Élémentaire d'Agriculture et d'Économie Rurale,' an excellent work; In 1831-32 he published in 5 vols. his Cours in 1833 his 'Système de Chimie Organique,' in which he recommended microscopic as well as chemical investigations into organic objects, and which has been translated into English by Henderson; and in 1837 'Système de Physiologie végétale et de botanique.' some occasional political pamphlets he wrote, in 1839, 'Lettres sur les Prisons de Paris.' In 1843 he published 'Histoire Naturelle de la Besides Santé et de la Maladie chez les Végétaux et chez les Animaux en général et en particulier chez l'Homme; servire de formule pour une nouvelle Methode de Traitement hygiènique et curatif; edition, enlarged, in 3 vols., 1846. 'Manuel Annuaire de la Santé, ou Médécine, et Pharmacie DomesIn 1846 also he published a second tique. A translation of this was published in English in 1853, under the title of 'Domestic Medicine, or Plain Instructions in the Art of Preserving and Restoring Health by simple and efficient means, edited by G. L. Strauss.' Some of the directions for preserving health are judicious enough, but the great remedy was camphor, exhibited in various forms, and especially as what were termed cigarettes. Raspail sold his medicaments in the form in which our quack medicines are sold, that is, in packets, with the vendor's signature, and an action was brought against him for transgressing the etiquette of the medical profession. It was instituted by Fouquier, physician to the king, and Orfila, dean of the faculty of medicine. Raspail pleaded that he was not a physician, but the inventor of certain medicines, and did not therefore require a diploma to practise. He was however found guilty, and sentenced to a small fine. On the occurrence of the coup-d'état in 1852 he took a decided part against Louis Napoleon, and was consequently imprisoned. While in confinement at Doullens, his wife died on March 8, 1853, and occasion was taken of her funeral to give a manifestation of republican feeling and of admiration for his consistency, by a procession exceeding 20,000 persons, who followed the body to its place of interment in the cemetery of Père la Chaise. On his release M. Raspail retired to Belgium. Two biographies of him have been published: 'Biographie de F. V. Raspail,' by C. Marchal, Paris, 1848, and Notice Biographique sur le Citoyen F. V. Raspail.'

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RASTALL, or RASTELL, JOHN, one of our early printers, is said by Bale to have been a citizen of London, and by Pits a native of that city. Wood says he was educated in grammar and philosophy at Oxford, and returning to London, set up the trade of printing. The first work which bears his name as printer, with a date, was published in 1517, the last in 1533. There are numerous others without dates. His residence was at the sign of the Mermaid, at Paul's Gate next Cheapside. He married Elizabeth, sister to Sir Thomas More, with whom Herbert supposes he became intimate in consequence of being employed to print Sir Thomas's 'Dyalogue on the Worship of Images and Reliques, published in 1529; but, as will hereafter be seen, his eldest son was born in 1528.

Bale and Pits ascribe the authorship of various works to John Rastall; the most remarkable of which is his 'Anglorum Regum Chronicon, or Pastyme of People,' a work of extreme rarity, reprinted in 1811 in the Collection of English Chronicles.' He translated from French into English the Abridgment of the Statutes before the reign of

BIOG. DIV. VOL. V.

RAUCH, CHRISTIAN.

34

Henry VII., and also abridged those of that reign which were made in English, as likewise those of Henry VIII., including the twenty-third and twenty-fourth of his reign. He also compiled several law-books. Of these, his 'Exposition of Law Terms and the Nature of Writs,' and the book called 'Rastall's Entries,' continued long in use. a convert to the Reformed religion by means of a controversy with John Frith. Rastall published Three Dialogues,' the last of which treats of purgatory, and was answered by Frith. wrote his Apology against John Frith,' which the latter answered He became with such strength of argument as to make a convert of his opponent. On this, Rastall annexed to his injunctions, in 1542. He died at London in 1536, Rastall also wrote a book called 'The Church of John Rastall,' which leaving two sons, William (noticed below), and John, who became was placed in the list of prohibited books published by Bishop Bonner, afterwards a justice of the peace.

1508, and about 1525 was sent to Oxford, which he left without taking a degree, and entered at Lincoln's Inn for the study of law. In the RASTALL, WILLIAM, son of the above, was born in London in first of Edward VI. he became autumn or summer reader of Lincoln's Inn; but on the change of religion he retired with his wife to Louvain, whence he returned on the accession of Queen Mary. In 1554 he was made a serjeant-at-law, one of the commissioners for the prosecution of heretics, and in 1588, a little before Mary's death, one of the justices but he preferred retiring to Louvain, where he died August 27, 1565. of the Common Pleas. Queen Elizabeth renewed his patent as justice, From 1530 to 1534 (Dibdin, in his edition of Herbert's Ames,' thinks conjunction with his practice as a lawyer. When Justice Rastall he till 1554), William Rastall carried on the business of a printer, in published A Collection of the Statutes in Force and Use,' in 1557. RASTOPCHIN. [ROSTOPCHIN.]

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Arolsen in the principality of Waldeck, on the 2nd of January 1777.
He early showed an aptness for art, and received instructions in it from
RAUCH, CHRISTIAN, an eminent German sculptor, was born at
the sculptor Professor Ruhl of Cassel. In his twentieth year he went
to Berlin, having being presented to an office in the court of the
here secured the friendship of Count Sandrecky with whom he set
Queen of Prussia; but his spare hours were all devoted to art. He
to Rome. There with the advice and aid of William von Humboldt,
then Prussian minister in that city, he devoted himself to the
out in 1804 on a tour through a part of France to Genoa, and thence
due probation he produced several original works, among others,
study of the antique, while he availed himself of the friendly instruc-
tion of the chief living sculptors, Canova and Thorwaldsen. After a
by Diomedes;' a Child praying,' &c. But he began still more to
bassi-rilievi of 'Hippolitus and Phædra;' a Mars and Venus wounded
patronage, he received from the King of Prussia commissions to
distinguish himself in the line to which he has continued to owe
execute a colossal bust of the King of Prussia, and a life size bust of
his chief celebrity, that of portraiture; besides abundant private
the queen; and from the King of Bavaria, a bust of Rafael Menge.
In 1811 he was recalled to Berlin, to execute a monumental statue of
failed he was permitted to proceed to Carrara to complete the work,
which he did in 1813, in a style that secured his reputation. He then
the Queen Louise. His design was approved, and his health having
Berlin, where he has since resided. During his second residence in
Rome Rauch was chiefly engaged on busts and statues; he executed
went on to Rome where he remained till 1822, when he returned to
for the King of Prussia, besides a marble statue of the king himself,
1824 he had executed with his own hand seventy marble busts, twenty
of them being of colossal size. Among the more important of his
monumental statues of Generals Bulow and Scharnhorst.
later works may be mentioned two colossal bronze statues of Field
By
designed after Blucher's death, for the King of Prussia, represents
Marshal Blucher; the first, representing the hero in vehement action,
the veteran in repose.
was erected with great solemnity at Breslau, July 9, 1827; the second

Another of his principal works is a seated bronze statue of Maxi-
statue of Göthe, modelled from the life, is the most perfect repre-
milian of Bavaria, erected in 1835 in Munich. The Victories' for
the Walhalla, near Ratisbon, are also from his chisel. A well-known
or bronze of Schiller, Schlieirmacher, and others of his chief contem-
poraries, and of Luther, Albert Dürer, and other famous Germans of
sentation of the great poet of modern Germany. Statues in marble
are held by his countrymen; while bronze statues of two or three of
the old Polish kings, which he executed for Count Raczynski, to be
an older time, serve to show the high estimation in which his works
placed in Posen Cathedral, and a bas-relief erected at Dublin in
memory of Miss Cooper, show that his ability is appreciated beyond
Germany.
Frederick the Great of Prussia, erected in the finest part of Berlin.
This work, in the design of which Rauch was assisted by Professor
Schinkel, the architect, and which called into exercise all the resources
His chief work however is the grand monument of
completed in 1839; the colossal model of the king was not however
ready till 1842, and the statue was cast in 1846. Four more years
of the two artists, was commenced in 1830. The general model was
military commanders, ministers, judges, literary men, &c., and figures
of the Virtues and the like, which were to be placed around the base.
were required for the execution of the bas-reliefs, and the statues of

D

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Meanwhile the granite basement was being constructed, and by the beginning of 1851 the whole was finished. It was inaugurated with the greatest pomp in May 1851. Of this-perhaps the most elaborate monumental work of recent years-a small model may be seen in the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, as well as casts of the colossal equestrian statue of the king which crowns the monument, of the bassi-rilievi which represent the chief transactions of his life, and of some of the detached statues. The work is a sort of compromise between the severity of classic and the freedom of romantic art, and will not in its details stand the test of rigorous criticism; but, casting aside minute criticism, it must be held to be one of the very finest as well as most imposing of recent commemorative works. And we may add that, even without this his master-work, Rauch would unquestionably stand at the head of living portrait and monumental sculptors, though far from ranking among the first in ideal sculpture. [SUPPLEMENT.] RAUPACH, ERNST BENJAMIN SALOMON, one of the most prolific of modern German dramatists, was born at the village of Straupitz, near Liegnitz, in Silesia, on May 21, 1784. He received his early education at the gymnasium at Liegnitz, and in 1801 proceeded to Halle to study theology. He afterwards went to Russia, where for ten years he occupied himself diligently as a teacher, and after a residence in that capacity at St. Petersburg for a year and a half, he was appointed professor of philosophy in the University there, to which in 1818 was added the professorship of German literature. In 1822 he quitted Russia, and having received somewhat later the solicited discharge from his professional duties, he travelled for a time about Germany, visited Italy, and at length returned and settled at Berlin. The result of his journey to Italy appeared in 1823 in 'Hirsewenzel's Briefe aus Italien.' His dramatic productions had already been numerous, ranging from 1810 downwards, though many did not appear in print till long after they had been written. In 1837-38 he published his series of historical plays in illustration of events connected with the Hohenstaufen dynasty of emperors of Germany, which formed eight volumes. His dramatic works were published in a collected form in two divisions, 'Dramatische Werke komischer Gattung' ('Dramatic Works of the Comic Species'), in 3 vols., 1826-34; and Dramatische Werke ernster Gattung (Dramatic Works of the Serious Species') in 18 vols., 1830-44. These works display considerable inventive powers, a great command over his materials, a thorough knowledge of stage resources, a sense of fitness, with a happy introduction of interesting situations. In his serious dramas he often reaches to the expression of deep passion, and in his comedies and farces a rich vein of verbal wit. His poetic style is harmonious and natural, and he has consequently been a favourite with the public. His defects are a want of poetic consistency, a weakness of characterisation, and occasionally a lapse from pure morality, as in his 'Robert der Teufel,' and one or two others. His series of historical plays on the Hohenstaufen, by provoking a comparison with those of Shakspere, appear the most defective in dramatic merit, but they contain some fine passages. He also published two collections of tales, one in 1820, another in 1833; but they possess little merit, and attracted but little attention. In 1842 he was created a privy-councillor, having previously been made a councillor. He died in March, 1852.

RAVENSCROFT, THOMAS, was born in 1592. He received his musical education in St. Paul's choir, and was admitted to the degree of Bachelor in Music, by the University of Cambridge, it is supposed, when only fifteen years of age. In 1611 he printed a collection of twentythree part-songs, under the title of 'Melismata, Musical Phansies,' &c., in which is his justly admired four-voiced song, 'Canst thou love and lie alone?' In 1614 appeared his 'Brief Discourses,' &c., another collection of twenty part-songs, to which is prefixed a discourse or essay on the old musical proportions, a vain endeavour to rescue them from the neglect into which they had deservedly fallen. In 1621 he published The whole Book of Psalms, &c., composed into four parts by sundry authors, to such several tunes as have been and are usually sung in England, Scotland, Wales, Germany, Italy, France, and the Netherlands.' Among the authors' appear the names of Tallis, Morley, John Milton (father of the poet), &c. Many are by Ravenscroft, who, had he only produced St. David's, Canterbury, and Bangor tunes, would have ensured the respect and gratitude of his country. The work, the first of the kind, we believe, that had appeared, contains a melody for each of the hundred and fifty psalms, many newly composed, and all harmonised by the above-mentioned persons. Tradition ascribes to Ravenscroft the merit of having been compiler of two other works, similar in character to the Melismata'—namely, Pammelia' and 'Deuteromelia,' both well known to musical antiquaries, highly valued by them, and now exceedingly rare; and the tradition receives support from an allusion in the 'Apologie' to his Brief Discourse, to Harmonies by divers and sundry Authors,' formerly published by him, the errors in which, he says, are "corrected in this (i.e. The Discourse) fourth and last work." The Pammelia,' comprising one hundred pieces, is dated 1609; the 'Deuteromelia,' containing thirty-two, bears the same date. A selection from the four above-named secular works was privately printed in 1822, for the use of The Roxburghe Club, by the Duke of Marlborough, who unhesitatingly ascribes the whole to Ravenscroft, though it might have been seen at a glance that this composer was author of but a few, while he may have been editor of all.

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* RAWLINSON, SIR HENRY CRESWICKE, was born at Chadlington, in Oxfordshire, in 1810, the son of Abraham Tysack Rawlinson. He was educated at Ealing, and entered the East India Company's military service in 1826. He served in the Bombay presidency till 1832, when he was appointed to the Shah of Persia's army, in which he remained till 1839. On January 1, 1833, he wrote his first letter to the secretary of the Asiatic Society, announcing that he had copied and read the Behistun inscription in Kurdistan, enclosing a specimen of his reading. At this time he knew nothing of what Lassen, Burnouf, and Rask had done in Europe regarding this inscription, which is in the cuneiform character. He continued to make occasional communications on the subject to the Asiatic Society till July 1839, when he sent a précis of the whole inscription, which was read at one of their meetings, and the first portion, containing the fac-similes and translations of the whole of the Bebistun inscriptions, was published in September 1846, and the Babylonian version, alphabet, and analysis of part of it was published in December 1851. The Afghan war occasioned his recall, and he was political agent at Candahar throughout that struggle, from 1840 to 1842. He was removed in 1843 to Baghdad as political resident, and here he studied the inscriptions of Nineveh. In 1844 he was appointed British consul there, and consul-general in 1851. He retired from the East Indian service, in which he had attained the rank of major, and of lieutenant-colonel in Turkey, was appointed a director of the East India Company in 1856, and was created a K.C.B. He has received Persian and Turkish orders of knighthood, and is a member of many learned foreign societies as well as a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. Since his residence in London he has been zealously deciphering and investigating the character of the languages used in the cuneiform inscriptions, with great success and with important results, assisted by Mr. Edwin Norris [NORRIS]. Besides numerous papers in the journals of the Asiatic and Geographical Societies, he has published Outline of the History of Assyria, as collected from the Inscriptions discovered by A. H. Layard in the Ruins of Nineveh. Printed from the Journal of the Asiatic Society,' London, 1852; and 'Memorandum on the Publication of the Cuneiform Inscriptions,' 1855. He is now preparing, at the cost of the government, copies of the most interesting inscriptions found at Nineveh and Babylon, chiefly from the originals in the British Museum.

RAY, JOHN, or WRAY (as he at one time spelt his name), who may be considered as the founder of true principles of classification in the vegetable and animal kingdoms, was the son of a blacksmith, and was born at Black-Notley, near Braintree in Essex, on the 29th of November 1627. He received a good education, being sent first to the grammar-school at Braintree, and afterwards to the University of Cambridge, where he entered at Catherine Hall, but subsequently removed to Trinity College, of which he was elected a fellow in 1649, together with Isaac Barrow. At the age of twenty three he was appointed Greek lecturer, and two years afterwards mathematical tutor to his college. He was also private tutor to several gentlemen of rank, and among others to one who possessed a kindred spirit to himself, and whose name afterwards became closely associated with his own in the paths of science, Francis Willughby. Ray was always fond of the study of natural history; but his cultivation of the science of botany is said to have been owing to an illness, which compelling him to remit his drier studies, he collected and investigated the different wild plants which he met with in his walks about Cambridge. In 1660 he published a 'Catalogus Plantarum circa Cantabrigiam nascentium,' 1 vol. 8vo, which he says took him ten years to compile. During his residence at the university he travelled over the greater part of England, Wales, and Scotland, in the pursuit of botanical and zoological information, and was generally accompanied in these excursions by his friend and pupil Mr. Willughby. At the Restoration he took orders, but never held any church preferment, nor performed regular parochial duty; and two years afterwards he was obliged to resign his fellowship in consequence of the passing of the Act of Uniformity, to which he could not conscientiously subscribe. After leaving the university he resided chiefly with Mr. Willughby at Middleton Hall in Warwickshire, and devoted the remainder of his life solely to the pursuit of natural history. In 1663 he embarked for the Continent with Mr. Willughby, where they remained for three years travelling through the Low Countries, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, and France; and collecting information respecting the animals and plants which inhabit these different countries. Willughby attended chiefly to zoology, and Ray to botany. An account of this tour was published by Ray in 1673 in 1 vol. 8vo. In 1667 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, to the Transactions' of which learned body he contributed some valuable papers. In 1672 he had the misfortune to lose his friend Mr. Willughby, who died at the age of thirty-seven, leaving him guardian to his two sons (the younger of whom was afterwards created Lord Middleton), and a legacy of 607. per annum. After superintending the education of Mr. Willughby's children for some time at Middleton Hall, he removed to Sutton Coldfield in Warwickshire, and then to Falkbourn Hall, Essex; and lastly he settled in 1679 at Black-Notley, his native place, where he remained till his death, which took place on January 17, 1704-5, at the age of seventy-seven.

Ray left many works, among which the botanical and zoological hold such a conspicuous place in the history and literature of those

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sciences, that they demand a brief notice. His first publication was the Catalogue of the Plants growing in the Neighbourhood of Cambridge,' which we have already mentioned. This work contains a description of 626 species arranged alphabetically, and accompanied with the synonyms of the principal botanical authors who had preceded him it is curious from its being the first production of a man who afterwards attained to such great celebrity, and it exhibits traces of those singular powers of observation which he afterwards so eminently displayed. A Supplement to this Catalogue appeared in 1663, and a second in 1685.

In 1682 appeared his 'Methodus Plantarum Nova,' 1 vol. 8vo, in which he proposed a new method of classifying plants, which when altered and amended, as it subsequently was by himself at a later period, unquestionably formed the basis of that method which, under the name of the system of Jussieu, is generally received at the present day. In the formation of the principal groups into which he divided the vegetable kingdom, Ray derived his characters sometimes from the fruit, sometimes from the flower, and sometimes from other parts of the plant, as each in its turn seemed to offer the most strongly marked points of distinction. He first proposed the division of plants into dicotyledons and monocotyledons. (Methodus Plantarum,' edit. 2, p. 2.) He extended these divisions both to trees and herbs, stating that palms differ as much in this respect from other trees as grasses and lilies do from other herbs. Though he made these great discoveries and improvements, Ray obstinately continued in the old error of separating woody from herbaceous plants, or trees from herbs, and he held a long controversy with Rivinus on this point; he even went so far as to state that one of these divisions might be distinguished from the other by the presence of buds, which he says are only developed in woody plants. To him is due however the honour of the discovery of the true nature of buds, for he says that they are points at which new annual plants spring up from the old stock; but he stopped short in his discovery in not extending them to herbaceous plants. In the first edition of the 'Methodus' he formed twenty-five classes, taking the woody plants first, which he divided into trees and shrubs. In this system he fell into many errors, one of the most glaring of which, as he himself afterwards observed, was the separation of the different species of corn from the other grasses. He subsequently altered this, and revised the whole arrangement, making thirty-four groups instead of twenty-five; many of which are almost exactly the same as are adopted by botanists of the present day under the name of Natural Orders.

His arrangement was too far in advance of the knowledge of the day, and the consequence was that it was little appreciated or adopted by his contemporaries and immediate successors, who, instead of improving the arrangement so ably sketched out, set about establishing others on artificial principles, all of which are rapidly sinking into oblivion, while the principles of Ray are tacitly admitted, and many of his fundamental divisions adopted in that beautiful but still imperfect Natural System which has been formed by the labours of Jussieu, Brown, De Candolle, Lindley, and others.

While he made these important improvements in classification, this great botanist did not neglect the study of species; his Catalogus Plantarum Anglia' first appeared in 1670, arranged alphabetically, and has been the basis of all subsequent Floras of this country. A second edition appeared in 1677, and in 1690 he published a third, entitled Synopsis Methodica Stirpium Britannicarum,' which is arranged according to his natural system. Another edition of the 'Synopsis' came out in 1696, and it was again republished by Dillenius in 1724. This work, of which the edition of 1696 is the best, is very accurate. Ray examined every plant described in the work himself, and investigated their synonyms with great care.

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In 1694 he published Stirpium Europæarum extra Britannias crescentium Sylloge.' This work contains a description of all those plants which he had himself collected on the Continent, as well as many which had been described by others. The synonyms are here very exact.

His largest botanical work was a general Historia Plantarum,' the first volume of which came out in 1686, fol.; a second appeared in 1688, and a third, which was supplementary, in 1704. In this vast work he collected and arranged all the species of plants which had then been described by botanists; he enumerated 18,625 species. Haller, Sprengel, Adanson, and others speak of this work as being the produce of immense labour, and as containing much learning and acute criticism; but from its nature it was of course principally a compilation. Ray made many researches in vegetable physiology. He published a very interesting paper in the Philosophical Transactions' (No. 68), on the mode of ascent of the sap, and we find many observations on the structure and functions of plants scattered through his various works. In the first volume of the Historia Plantarum' he collected together, under the title of 'De Plantis in Genere,' all the principal discoveries which had been made on the structure and properties of plants by Cesalpin, Grew, Malpighi, and others, as well as by himself; so that he thus published by far the most complete introduction to botany that had then appeared.

In zoology Ray ranks almost as high as in botany; and his works on this subject are even more important, as they still in a great measure preserve their utility. Cuvier says, that "they may be con

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sidered as the foundation of modern zoology, for naturalists are obliged to consult them every instant, for the purpose of clearing up the difficulties which they meet with in the works of Linnæus and his copyists." Mr. Willughby, at the time of his death, left to his friend Ray the task of arranging and publishing the various materials which he had collected for an extensive work on the animal kingdom. Ray exhibited as much zeal as fidelity in the execution of this trust, for he might have called the works partly his own without much injustice, as he had assisted in the first collection of the materials, and had the entire task of arranging and classifying them; besides which, it is easy to observe, as Cuvier had remarked, that the histories of plants and animals are both written by the same hand. The Ornithologia' of Willughby, which was the first part of the work that appeared, was published in 1676, one vol. fol., with seventy-seven plates. An English translation of it, by Ray, appeared the following year. The remaining part, which is the most complete, was the 'Historia Piscium,' and did not come out till 1686, 2 vols. fol. These works contain a great number of new species of birds and fishes, which had been discovered by Willughby and Ray in Germany and Italy, as well as those which had been previously described. Cuvier says, "The fishes of the Mediterranean are described with rare precision, and it is frequently easier to find species in Willughby than in Linnæus." Many of the figures in these works are original, and very good.

Ray published several works of his own on zoology. He undertook to form a classical arrangement of the whole animal kingdom, as he had of the vegetable; and, in 1693, he published his 'Synopsis Methodica Animalium, Quadrupedum, et Serpentini Generis,' in 1 vol. Svo. Similar volumes on birds and fishes were also prepared by him, but were not published till after his death, by Dr. Derham, in 1713. The two last are principally abridgments of the great works published under the name of Willughby. He also left an admirable history of insects, which was likewise published by Dr. Derham, at the expense of the Royal Society; and contains an appendix on beetles, by Dr. Lister. The most important character of the zoological works of Ray is the precise and clear method of classification which he adopted. The primary divisions of his system were founded on the structure of the heart and organs of respiration. His arrangement of the classes of quadrupeds and birds has been followed by many naturalists. Both Linnæus and Buffon borrowed largely from the works of Ray. Buffon extracted from Willughby's 'Ornithology,' almost all the anatomical part of his history of birds; and Cuvier says that the 'Dictionnaire d'Ichthyologie,' by Daubenton and Hauy, in the Encyclopédie Méthodique,' consists in great part of translations from Ray's works on fishes.

In addition to his numerous scientific writings, Ray composed several works on divinity and other subjects: the best known of these are, A Collection of Proverbs,' which came out in 1672, and went through several editions; The Wisdom of God in the Creation,' 1690, which also had an extensive sale; 'A Persuasion to a Holy Life,' 1700; and three Physico-Theological Discourses concerning Chaos, the Deluge, and the Dissolution of the World,' 1692.

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(Life, by Dr. Derham; Haller's Bibl. Bot.; Life, by Cuvier and Du Petit Thouars, in the Biog. Univer.; and Life, by Sir J. E. Smith, in Rees's Cyclop.)

RAYMUND LULLY. [LULLY.]

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RAYNA'L, GUILLAUME THOMA'S FRANÇOIS, was born in 1711, at St. Geniez, in the province of Rouergue, now the department de l'Aveyron. He studied in the Jesuits' College at Pézénas, and took orders as a priest, but afterwards left the Jesuits, and came to Paris, where he was made assistant-curate of the parish of St. Sulpice, in 1747. It is stated, in the 'Biographie Universelle,' that he was dismissed from the service of that parish in consequence of simoniacal practices; among others for exacting illegal fees for performing the office of the dead. He next turned to literary pursuits, and having made himself acquainted with several influential men, he became editor of the 'Mercure de France.' He also wrote Histoire du Stathouderat,' 12mo, 1748, which has been reprinted several times. It is a superficial work, and written in a declamatory style. His 'Histoire du Parlement d'Angleterre' is equally superficial and inaccurate. From these and his Anecdotes Littéraires,' Anecdotes historiques, militaires, et politiques,' and other similar light works, he derived a considerable profit. At the same time Raynal speculated in mercantile affairs, and, it is said by Désessart, in his 'Siècles Littéraires de la France,' that he employed capital in the slave-trade. At Paris he frequented the society of Helvetius, Holbach, and Madame Geoffrin. In 1770 he published his great work, by which he is chiefly known, 'Histoire Philosophique des Establissemens des Européens dans les deux Indes,' 4 vols. 8vo, La Haye, without the author's name. work was reprinted several times, both in France and out of France, with additions by the author; and although many passages were written in a very violent tone against monarchy, and especially the French monarchy, and against Christianity, the French government allowed the book to circulate undisturbed. In the mean time Raynal travelled in Holland and England, and collected fresh materials for his work, of which he published a new and enlarged edition at Geneva, 10 vols. 8vo, 1780, with his name and his portrait.

The

The French authorities now took notice of the book. In May 1781, the parliament of Paris condemned it to be burned by the hand of the

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RAZZI, CAVALIERE GIOVANNI ANTONIO. executioner, and ordered the author to be arrested and his property sequestrated, but his friends in office gave him timely notice to quit France and to place his property in safety. Raynal repaired to Spa, where a young Belgian addressed to him a laudatory epistle, La Nymphe de Spa à l'Abbé Raynal,' which drew upon the author the censure of the prince bishop of Liège, the sovereign of the county. Raynal replied by another letter, in which he abused the clergy, and bishops in particular, in the most virulent manner. He had long since openly renounced his priestly character, and spoke of himself as "having been once a priest." From Spa he repaired to Saxe-Gotha, and from thence to Berlin, where he with some difficulty obtained an audience of Frederick the Great, who was displeased at some passages of his work which reflected upon himself. Frederick afterwards wrote to D'Alembert concerning his interview with Raynal, who, he said, spoke much about the wealth, the resources, and the power of nations, and in so positive a manner, "that, in listening to him, I almost fancied that I was listening to the voice of Providence." In 1787, Raynal was allowed to return to France, but not to Paris. His friend Malouet, who was intendant-general of the navy at Toulon, received him hospitably in his house. Raynal marked his residence in the south of France by several acts of beneficence and philanthropy, as he had done previously during a journey in Switzerland. When the first symptoms of the French revolution showed themselves, Raynal was elected by the city of Marseille as their representative in the states-general. He declined the honour on the plea of old age; but the fact was that his opinions had undergone a great change. In December 1790, a letter appeared in the papers, purporting to be addressed by Raynal to the National Assembly, expressive of his altered sentiments on political subjects. This however was disavowed by Raynal's friends; but on the 31st of May, 1791, Raynal did address an eloquent letter to Bureau de Puzy, president of the National Assembly, in which, after drawing a gloomy sketch of the state of France, of the persecutions of the clergy, of the inquisitorial power exercised against opinions, of the disorders and violence of every sort which were daily perpetrated by mobs with impunity, and all in the name of liberty, he stated his regret that "he was one of those who, by expressing in his works a generous indignation against arbitrary power, had perhaps been the means of putting weapons into the hands of licentiousness and anarchy." This letter, being read publicly by the president, occasioned a violent storm in the Assembly. Roederer called the president to order for reading the letter. (Moniteur,' 31st of May, 1791.) Journals and pamphlets vied with each other in abusing Raynal as a renegade and a dotard. Raynal however remained quiet in the neighbourhood of Paris; he passed unmolested through the period of terror; and he died in March, 1796, at the house of a friend at Chaillot. Just before his death the Directory had named him member of the National Institute, and his 'éloge' was read by Lebreton at one of the first sittings of that body.

A new edition of Raynal's 'History' was published at Paris in 11 vols. 8vo, 1820-21, with a biographical notice and reflections on the works of Raynal, by M. A. Jay. The following works have been erroneously attributed to Raynal: 1, 'Inconvénients du Célibat des Prêtres (by the Abbé Gaudin); 2, 'Des Assassinats et des Vols Politiques sous le Nom de Proscription et de Confiscations' (by Servan). RAZZI, CAVALIERE GIOVANNI ANTONIO, called IL SODOMA, an eminent painter, was born about the year 1479, according to some at Verceil in Piedmont, and as stated by others at Vergelli, a village near Siena, of which place he had certainly received the right of citizenship. He was instructed, according to Vasari, by Giacomo dalle Fronte, but he chiefly formed his principles by an attentive study of the works of Leonardo da Vinci. Among his earliest performances were the pictures he painted in 1502, at Monte Oliveto, representing the history of S. Benedetto. He was employed at Rome, in the pontificate of Julius II., to decorate part of the Vatican; but his works, with those of some other artists, were removed to make way for the frescoes of Raffaelle. Some grotesques however from his hands were preserved. In the Chigi Palace, now called the Farnesina, are some of his pictures, representing the history of Alexander the Great, the most noted of which is the Marriage of Roxana,' which were executed by order of Agostino Chigi, and which Fuseli considered to possess much of the chiaroscuro, though not the dignity and grace, of Leonardo da Vinci, and to be remarkable for beauties of perspective and playful imagery. At Siena he painted many works. The Adoration of the Magi,' which is in the church of S. Agostino, resembles the style of Leonardo da Vinci; but his chef-d'œuvre is the 'Scourging of Christ,' which is in the convent of S. Francisco; the 'Swoon of St. Catharine of Sienna,' painted in fresco, in one of the chapels of S. Domenico, is another fine work. The 'St. Sebastian,' in the gallery at Florence, is supposed to be painted from an antique torso. The Sacrifice of Abraham,' painted for the cathedral of Pisa, was in the Louvre in 1814, where it excited much admiration it was returned to Tuscany in 1815.

He is said by Lanzi to have frequently painted in a hurried manner, without any preparatory study, especially in his old age, when, reduced to poverty at Siena, he sought employment at Pisa, Volterra, and Lucca; but still, though careless of excellence, Razzi never painted badly. Vasari seems to have been a systematic opponent of

RÉAUMUR, RENÉ-ANTOINE FERCHAULT DE. 40

Razzi, and generally styles him a buffoon, "but," says Lanzi, "Giovio has written of Razzi in a different manner; when speaking of the death of Raffaelle, he subjoins, 'plures pari pene gloriâ certantes artem exceperunt, et in his Sodomas Vercellensis.' He who objects to the testimony of this eminent scholar, will receive that of a celebrated painter: Annibale Caracci, passing through Siena said, 'Razzi appears a master of the very highest eminence and of the greatest taste, and (speaking of his best works at Siena) few such pictures are to be seen."" Razzi died at Siena, February 14, 1549. He had many pupils; the principal one was Bartolommeo Neroni, generally called Maestro Riccio. RÉAUMUR, RENÉ-ANTOINE FERCHAULT DE, was born at Rochelle in 1683. He was brought up to the law; but being much attached to scientific pursuits, and possessing an independent fortune, he gave up his profession and went to Paris in 1703, where he determined to devote his life to his favourite studies. In 1708 he read some geometrical observations before the Academy of Sciences, which were so well received that he was admitted a member at the age of twenty-four. He belonged to that learned body for fifty years, and contributed a vast number of interesting papers to their 'Memoirs.' The chief objects of his attention were the improvement of the arts and manufactures of his country, and natural history. In 1711 he made some experiments relative to the manufacture of cordage, and he proved that the strength of a cord is less than the sum of the strengths of the threads of which it consists; whence it follows that the less a rope is twisted the stronger it is. In 1715, while examining the process of colouring artificial pearls, he discovered the nature of the singular substance which gives the brilliancy to the scales of fishes, and he investigated the mode of formation and growth of these scales. He also made some researches of a similar kind on the development of the shells of testaceous animals. When describing in 1715 the mines of (occidental) turquoise, which he discovered in Languedoc, and the means which are employed to colour these stones, he found that the substances of which these gems consist are portions of the fossil teeth of an extinct animal. The most important of Réaumur's labours in the department of the arts were the experiments which he made on the manufacture of iron and steel. He published his researches on this subject in a separate work (those which we have before mentioned appeared in the Memoirs of the Academy), entitled Traité sur l'Art de convertir le Fer en Acier, et d'adoucir le Fer Fondu.' He here described the process of making steel, which was then unknown in France (that metal being solely obtained from abroad), and he made his discovery public, for which national benefit the Regent Duke of Orleans settled on him a pension of 12,000 livres. He also discovered the art of tinning iron, which was likewise unknown in France. During his experiments on metals Réaumur first observed that these substances in passing from a fluid into a solid state have a tendency to assume certain definite crystalline forms. Among his other useful labours he greatly improved the manufacture of porcelain in France. He also made a number of experiments on artificial incubation, which has been practised from time immemorial in Egypt. He endeavoured to introduce the art into common use in France, but was not successful, owing principally to the greater coldness of the climate than in Egypt. In 1711 he discovered a species of mollusk from which a purple dye might be prepared, analogous to the purple of the ancients.

In general physics the name of Réaumur is celebrated from the thermometer which he invented in 1731. He took the freezing and boiling points of water as two fixed points, and then divided the interval into 80 degrees, the freezing point being zero. The centigrade thermometer now in more general use in France was only an improvement on Réaumur's, the interval between the freezing and boiling points being divided into 100 instead of 80 degrees.

Though many of the researches which we have mentioned (most of which will be found in the 'Memoirs' of the Academy, together with many papers on other subjects by the same author) were very useful and important, yet his labours in the field of natural history were much more novel and interesting. In 1710 he described the means by which many shell-fish, echinodermata (sea-stars), and other mollusks and zoophytes, execute their progressive movements; and in 1712 he observed the curious phenomena of the reproduction of the claws of lobsters and crabs.

Of all the works of Réaumur, "the most remarkable," as Cuvier says, "and these which cannot fail to be studied with the most vivid interest by those who wish to have just ideas of nature, and of the marvellous variety of means which she employs to preserve the most fragile of her productions, and those which are in appearance the least capable of resistance," are his Mémoires pour servir à l'Histoire des Insectes,' of which 6 vols. 4to appeared between 1734 and 1742. Cuvier adds "The author here carries to the highest point his acuteness of observation in the discovery of those instincts, so complicated and so constant in each species, which maintain these feeble creatures. He unceasingly excites our curiosity by new and singular details. His style is a little diffuse, but clear, and the facts which he relates may always be depended on." While collecting materials for this work we find it recorded that he kept numerous insects of all kinds in his garden, for the purpose of observing their habits and instincts. Unfortunately this work is not finished; and the seventh volume, which came into the hands of the Academy of Sciences after the death

REBOLLEDO, BERNARDINO, COUNT OF.

of the author, was left in such an imperfect state that it was not capable of publication. The six volumes which were completed include all the winged insects, except the crickets (gryllus), grasshoppers, and beetles. The first two volumes comprise the various kinds of caterpillars, with a description of their forms, mode of life, metamorphoses, &c., as well as the different insects which attack them or live parasitically within them. The third volume includes the cloth-moths, aphides, &c. The fourth embraces the gall-insects and the various two-winged flies. The fifth contains the history of bees, and Réaumur made many interesting discoveries concerning the habits of these curious insects, which however have been greatly added to since by the labours of Huber and others. The smaller communities of wasps, hornets, &c., together with an account of the different kinds of solitary bees, occupy the sixth and last volume, which is one of the most curious of the whole. Réamur formed a large collection of objects of natural history, of which Brisson was the conservator, and the principal materials for that naturalist's work on quadrupeds and birds were collected from it. Many of Buffon's plates were also taken from objects in his museum, which, after his death, went to the Cabinet du Roi. Réaumur passed a quiet retired life, and his private history is unmarked by any import ant incident. He is said to have died from the effects of a fall which he received while riding in the country. His death took place in October 1757, in his seventy-fifth year.

(Life, by Cuvier, in Biog. Univ.) REBOLLE DO, BERNARDINO, COUNT OF, a distinguished Spanish officer and writer, was born of illustrious parents at Leon, the capital of the province of that name, in 1597. In early youth he embraced the profession of arms, and joined the Spanish army of Italy, where he so much distinguished himself as to obtain, in 1622, the command of a galley, with which he assisted in the taking of Port Maurice and the castle of Ventimille from the Genoese. After this he served in the army, and was present at the taking of Nice (1626), and the storming of the fortress of Casal, where he was severely wounded. In 1632 he commanded a considerable body of Spanish infantry in the Low Countries. Having, in 1636, received orders from his government to march to the assistance of the Emperor Ferdinand II., who was closely pursued by the Swedes, he succeeded in extricating that monarch from his perilous situation, and was by him rewarded with the title of Count of the Germanic Empire and the government of the Low Palatinate. At the conclusion of the war, Philip IV. appointed him ambassador to the court of Denmark; and he rendered signal service to the king of Denmark when Charles Gustavus marched his army across the frozen sea and bombarded Copenhagen. Though a zealous Roman Catholic, Rebolledo felt for the royal house of Denmark a kind of personal devotion, which he seized every opportunity of manifesting in his writings. He had early evinced some talent for poetry, and he had whilst in Germany composed a sort of didactic poem on the art of war and state policy, entitled Selvas Militares y Politicas,' which he afterwards published at Copenhagen in 1652, 16mo. But it was not until his mission to that capital, that Robolledo found leisure to prosecute with assiduity his poetic studies. He seems to have taken particular interest in the history and geography of Denmark, a compendium of which he put into verse, which was printed at Copenhagen, under the title of Selvas Danicas,' 1665, 4to. After a residence of several years at the court of Denmark, Rebolledo was recalled to Madrid, where he was soon after appointed president of the Board of War in the council of Castile. He died in 1676, in the eightieth year of his age. Besides the two above-mentioned works, Rebolledo wrote-1, 'La Constancia victoriosa y Trinos de Jeremias,' Colonia (Copenhagen), 1665, 4to, being a paraphrase of the Book of Job and the Lamentations of Jeremiah; 2, Selvas Sagradas,' Ib., 1657, and Antwerp, 1661, 4to; 3, a play entitled 'Amor despreciando Riesgos' ('Love dreads no Danger'), possesses considerable interest. Rebolledo was particularly successful as a writer of madrigals, some of which are so good as to remind the reader of the best times of Spanish poetry, which in Rebolledo's time was fast on its decline. His lighter poems appeared at Antwerp, 1660, 16mo, under the title of Ocios,' (Leisure Hours). An edition of Rebolledo's works was collected in his lifetime, and appeared at Antwerp, 1660, in 3 vols. 4to. But the best and most complete is that of Madrid, 1778, 4 vols. 4to.

RECORDE, ROBERT, an eminent mathematician of the 16th century, was the first native of Great Britain who introduced the study of analytical science into this country. There is no memorial of the exact time of his birth, though it must have been somewhere about the year 1500. We know that he was a native of Tenby in Pembrokeshire, that he entered himself a student at Oxford about the year 1525, where he publicly taught rhetoric, mathematics, music, and anatomy, and that he was elected a fellow of All Souls' College in 1531. Making physic his profession, he repaired to Cambridge, and in 1545 he received the degree of M.D. from that university, and, says Wood, was highly esteemed by all who knew him for his great knowledge in several arts and sciences. He afterwards returned to Oxford, where, as he had done previously to his visit to Cambridge, he publicly taught arithmetic and other branches of the mathematics with great applause. According to Fuller, he was of the Protestant religion. He afterwards repaired to London, at which place he resided in 1547, and in that year published a medical work entitled The Urinal of Physic,' which

REDGRAVE, RICHARD, R.A.

passed through, several editions. He was also chosen physician to Edward VI. and Queen Mary, to both of whom he dedicates some of his works. With the knowledge of this latter fact, it is scarcely possible to account for the circumstances in which he was at the time of his decease, a prisoner in the King's Bench. He died in 1558, probably soon after the date of his will (June 28), in which he styled himself Robert Recorde, doctor of physicke, though sicke in body yet whole of mynde.' This document is preserved in the Prerogative Office, and furnishes some facts: to Arthur Hilton, under-marshal of the King's Bench, his wife, and the other officers and prisoners, he gave small sums amounting to 6l. 16s. 8d.; to his servant John, 6l.; to his mother, and his father-in-law, her husband, 20.; to Richarde Recorde, his brother, and Robert Recorde, his nephew, his goods and chattels, out of which his debts and the expenses of his funeral were to be discharged. This last item leads us to think that debt was not, as commonly stated, the real reason for his imprisonment; although, indeed, the amount of property enumerated does not constitute a large sum even for those days. In a codicil to his will, made on the 29th of June, 1558, he gives directions that his law books should be sold to Nicholas Adams, a fellow-prisoner, for 41.

The works of Recorde are all written in dialogue between master and scholar, in the rude English of the time. They are enumerated by the author himself at the end of his work called 'The Castle of Knowledge;' and there is reason to think that two of his works mentioned in that place are irrecoverably lost, at least no trace of either of them has yet been discovered in print or manuscript. One of them appears to have been entitled The Gate of Knowledge,' and the other The Treasure of Knowledge.'-Recorde's most popular work appeared as early as 1540, under the title of The Grounde of Artes, teachinge the worke and practise of Arithmeticke, both in whole numbers and fractions, after a more easier and exacter sort than any lyke hathe hitherto been set forth.' We have taken this title from the edition of 1573. The Grounde of Artes' was dedicated to Edward VI., and continued to be repeatedly reprinted until the end of the 17th century, the latest edition we have seen being that edited by Edward Hatton in the year 1699. This work contains numeration, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, reduction, progression, the golden rule, a treatise on reckoning by counters on a principle much resembling that of the Chinese abacus, a system of representing numbers by the hand like the alphabet of the deaf and dumb, a repetition of all the rules for fractions, with the rules of alligation, fellowship, and false position. On the last rule he remarks that he was in the habit of astonishing his friends by proposing difficult questions, and working the true result by taking the chance answers of 'suche children or ydeotes as happened to be in the place.' The Pathway to Knowledge,' a brief compendium of geometry, translated and abridged from the Elements of Euclid, was published at London in 1551.

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'The Castle of Knowledge' was published in 1556, dedicated in English to Queen Mary, and in Latin to Cardinal Pole. This work is written in the form of a dialogue between master and scholar on astronomy, and from the preface we gather that Recorde had not altogether abandoned astrology. It begins with an account of the Ptolemaic system, and afterwards proceeds in an apparently concealed passage to unfold the elements of the Copernican system of the universe. Recorde appears to have been one of the earliest persons in this country who adopted the Copernican system, if not the earliest person who introduced it among us. All that is cited from Euclid and Proclus is in Greek and Latin, usually both.

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In the Whetstone of Witte,' which was published in 1557, Recorde has amassed together the researches of foreign writers on the subject of algebra, then in its infancy, and has also incorporated several improvements of his own. In algebra we recognise Recorde as the inventor of the sign of equality, and of the method of extracting the square root of multinominal algebraic quantities. In perception of general results connected with the fundamental notation of algebra, he shows himself superior to others, and even, we may say, to Vieta, although of course immeasurably below the latter in the invention of means of expression. All his writings considered together, Recorde was an extraordinary genius; and it must be remembered he was a lawyer, a physician, and a Saxonist, as well as the first mathematician of his day.

(Halliwell, The Connexion of Wales with the early Science of England, 8vo, 1840; and an article in the Companion to the British Almanac for 1837, by Prof. De Morgan.)

* REDGRAVE, RICHARD, R.A., was born in London in 1804. The son of a manufacturer, his youth was spent in the counting-house of his father, his chief employment, he says (Letter in 'Art-Journal' for February 1850) consisting "in making the designs and working drawings for the men, and journeying into the country to measure and direct the works in progress." The business became an unprosperous one, and he was permitted by his father to follow his own preference for art. He drew in the Elgin and Townley galleries at the British Museum, and about 1826 entered as a student in the Royal Academy; at the same time maintaining himself by teaching drawing. He had exhibited many pictures-the Pilgrim's Progress appearing, from the catalogues, to be a favourite text-book-before he met with what he terms his first success." This was the sale of a picture exhibited

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