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memoir of the author.

RETZ, CARDINAL DE

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REUCHLIN, JOHN.

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His professional publications consist of 'Sketches and Hints on does not appear to have pursued a regular course of academic study. Landscape Gardening,' 4to, 1795; 'Observations on the Theory and He painted portraits, and historical and poetic subjects, and in time Practice of Landscape Gardening,' 4to, 1803; Inquiry into the came to be nominated (1824) professor of painting in the Dresden Changes of Taste in Landscape Gardening,' 8vo, 1806; Designs Academy; but as a painter he has never acquired much distinction. [proposed but not adopted] for the Pavilion at Brighton,' folio, 1808; What first gained him a reputation beyond his native city was his and Fragments on the Theory, &c. of Landscape Gardening,' 4to, series of outline etchings illustrative of the Faust' of Göthe, first 1816, in which he was assisted by his eldest son. These different pub- published in 1812-a work of marvellous force and beauty, and dislications on his art were reprinted in 1840 by the late Mr. Loudon playing a subtlety of thought and fancy worthy of the great poem on [LOUDON, J. C.], in a single octavo volume, accompanied with a which it was founded. These etchings immediately became extremely popular throughout Germany, and soon found equally warm admirers RETZ, JEAN FRANÇOIS PAUL DE GONDI, CARDINAL DE, in England, where his works have always been highly esteemed. descended of a rich and powerful house, was born in October 1614. Enlarged editions of them have several times been produced, and they Destined by his father to the Church, in the hope of his obtaining the have long been the received artistic exponents, as far as they go, of the archbishopric of Paris, then held in succession by two members of his 'Faust.' Similar illustrations of Schiller's poems (1816) attained family, he was compelled to enter upon a profession repugnant and nearly equal celebrity. Then followed his Illustrations of Shakunsuitable to his ardent, unscrupulous, and intriguing temper. His spere,' of which some eight series have appeared, embracing Hamlet' youth was sullied by debauchery, while at the same time his theolo- (1828), Macbeth (1833), Romeo and Juliet' (1836), King Lear' gical studies were prosecuted with success and distinction; but in (1838), 'The Tempest' (1841), Othello' (1842), The Merry Wives of the history of the contests of parties in Greece and Rome he found a Windsor' (1844), and Henry IV.' (1845). As might be expected, more congenial pursuit, and brilliant and seductive examples of what these present a decidedly German rendering of Shakspere's purpose, he most coveted, political ability and success. His first political and are very unequal in effect; but they are on the whole the most connection was with the Comte de Soissons, to the success of whose intellectual series of pictorial illustrations of Shakspere which have revolt he looked forward for the means of abandoning his profession. yet been given to the world, and often present the poet's thoughts in Disappointed by the death of that nobleman, he resumed with more a new and very striking light. This is indeed what is the especial regularity his ecclesiastical studies and employments; and gained the characteristic of this great original artist. He, in his own walk-as a good opinion not only of the clergy of Paris, but of Louis XIII., who, designer in outline-might well claim to stand in the highest place; on his death-bed (1643), named Gondi coadjutor to his uncle the arch- but still, far above all technical power, is to be estimated that bright, bishop of Paris. He devoted himself zealously to discharge the clear, and strong intelligence with which every design, and every part external functions of his office; and by this regularity, and by his of each design, is irradiated. And this intelligence controls alike profuse distribution of alms, established his popularity with the an almost exuberant fancy and a vigorous imagination, preserving him citizens. The bend of his mind however is shown by his answer to almost invariably from what must inevitably be the besetting danger one who reproached him with prodigality: "Caesar, at my age, owed of his turn of mind and range of subjects-exaggeration and extravasix times as much as I." His conduct made him an object of gance. He deals much in allegory and symbolism, but these seldom suspicion to the court; and though on the first breaking out of the run into mysticism, and the meaning generally reveals itself after a disturbances of the Fronde he rendered active and valuable assistance little attentive consideration. Besides those above named, Retzsch to the royal cause, still his sincerity was not credited; and he was has published folios of wild and playful Phantasien,' 'Sketches,' driven by the distrust of the court, co-operating with his own ambi-Illustrations to Bürger's Leonora,' and The War between Light tion, to become, not indeed the avowed leader, but the moving spirit and Darkness;' also The Chess-Player,' and various other separate of the popular party. "Before noon to-morrow," he said, when his outline etchings. resolution was formed, "I will be master of Paris:" and he kept his word. This was the eminence to which the dreams and studies of his youth had led him to aspire. "I am convinced," he said in his Memoirs, "that it requires greater qualities to be a good party leader, than to be emperor of the universe." Throughout the wars of the Fronde, a busy period of domestic contest, he maintained his ascendancy; and he has earned from one of his biographers the praise of being the only person who in those troubles sought not gain, but reputation. The praise of generosity towards his bitterest personal enemies is also due to him. The war was closed by the return of the court to Paris, in October 1652.

Tempting offers were made to induce Gondi, who had now risen to the rank of cardinal, to quit his see and repair to Rome, with the title of ambassador; but while he hesitated, and sought to make terms for his friends, he was arrested, December 19, without resistance on the part of the Parisians, who, by this time, were well wearied of civil war. For some time he was very closely confined at Vincennes. By resigning his archbishopric however, to which he had now succeeded by the death of his uncle, he purchased his removal to the château of Nantes, from which he effected his escape into Spain (1654), with singular boldness and good fortune. From Spain he repaired to Rome, where, in spite of the opposition of the cardinals attached to France, he supported the consideration due to his talents, and, it is said, decided the election of Pope Alexander VII. Having revoked his resignation, he maintained during some time his vicars in the administration of the archbishopric; and at last, by its surrender in exchange for other benefices, after leading for some years a wandering life, he effected his reconciliation with Louis XIV., and his restoration to France. The remainder of his life was spent chiefly in retirement, in works of charity and piety. He sold his estates, and, reserving a sum sufficient for his maintenance, devoted the bulk of his revenues to the payment of his debts, which he thus liquidated, to the great amount, as it is calculated, of more than four millions of francs, modern money. Mad. de Sévigné, who was intimate with him during his latter years, speaks with enthusiasm of the charms of his conversation, the elevation of his character, and his mild and peaceable virtues. We must conclude therefore that reflection and adverse fortune had worked a great and salutary change in his disposition. He died at Paris, August 24, 1679.

His political writings, being chiefly of the nature of pamphlets, are forgotten: as an author, his reputation rests on his Memoirs, written, Voltaire says, with an air of grandeur, an impetuosity and inequality of genius, which are the picture of his conduct. The memoirs of Joli, the cardinal's secretary, also contain copious materials for the biography of De Retz.

RETZSCH, MORITZ, was born at Dresden, in December 1779. Though displaying from childhood a great fondness for drawing and modelling, it was not till approaching manhood that he thought of art for a profession. He then entered the Dresden Academy, but

Retzsch lives to enjoy in full measure the fame his right hand has won. The excellent old man dwells in a pleasant garden-house just outside Dresden, in a style of patriarchal simplicity, beloved by all who know him, and especially honoured by his fellow-citizens, among whom he has lived for now more than three-quarters of a century, and who rejoice in the credit which his genius reflects on their city; and English travellers love to relate the hearty reception he gives them, and the gratification he plainly feels in talking about England and his English friends, and showing his brimming portfolios of inexhaustible fancies, and especially the album of drawings which he presents to his wife on every recurring birthday. [See SUPPLEMENT.]

REUCHLIN, JOHN, an eminent German scholar, was born in 1455 at Pforzheim, in the dominions of the Margrave of Baden. He was admitted in boyhood as a chorister of that prince's chapel, and, having gained his notice by aptitude in learning, was sent by him to Paris in 1473 as companion to his son. At Paris, Reuchlin prosecuted his studies with advantage, especially in Greek; and not to follow minutely his wandering course, we find him successively at Basel, Orleans, Poitiers, and lastly Tübingen, where, having previously taken his degree in law, he commenced practice as an advocate about 1481. In 1482 he visited Rome and other of the chief towns of Italy as secretary to the Count of Würtemberg, enjoyed and profited by the society of the most learned men of the age, and was received at the court of Lorenzo de' Medici with distinguished respect. On his return to Germany he took up his abode at Stuttgard, and from 1484 to 1509 filled a variety of high legal and diplomatic functions. In the latter year he became entangled in a long and harassing dispute arising out of an edict obtained by Pfefferkorn, a converted Jew of Cologne, authorising him to examine and burn all Jewish books containing anything against the Christian religion. Reuchlin, on being referred to, gave his opinion decidedly against the justice of this measure; and in answer to a work of Pfefferkorn, entitled 'Speculum Manuale,' wrote the 'Speculum Oculare,' in 1511. This book was censured by the Cologne, Paris, Louvain, and other universities, and involved him with the Inquisition, before which in 1513 he was summoned to appear at Mainz. Reuchlin appealed to the pope; and the pope referred the matter to the Bishop of Spire, who pronounced the 'Speculum Oculare' to be neither dangerous to the Church nor favourable to Judaism. Still the universities persisted in their condemnation, and even ordered the book to be publicly burnt; and in 1516 the cause was still in course of hearing at Rome, when it was stopped by the pope, and the disputes consequent on the rise of the Reformation prevented its being revived. In the troubled times which followed, Reuchlin had his share of distress and poverty. In 1518 he accepted, and held for a short time, the Greek and Hebrew professorships at Wittenberg; and he afterwards taught Greek and Hebrew at Ingolstadt for somewhat less than a year. In 1520 or 1521 he was appointed to the same chairs at Tubingen, a pleasant gleam over the close of his troubled life; for every comfort and facility were afforded to him, and crowds of students from all parts

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of Germany testified the respect in which his name and learning were held. Infirmity and sickness however soon compelled him to resign this employment, and he died at Stuttgardt, June 30, 1522.

As a scholar, Reuchlin's name stands high among the men of his age. He was suspected of a leaning towards the reformed doctrines, which the liberality of his views on the Jewish question no doubt tended to confirm. Be this as it may, he never separated himself from the Roman Church. His numerous writings comprehend some elementary works on Hebrew, esteemed in their day, but of course long since obsolete; and some treatises on the cabalistic art. His fluency and purity in speaking both Greek and Latin were great, and highly admired.

REY, JEAN, a French physician, was a native of Bugue on the Dordogne. In 1630 he published at Bazas, a town about thirty miles south-east of Bordeaux, a book under the following title: Essays de Jean Rey, Docteur en Médécine, sur la Recherche de la Cause pour laquelle l'Estain et le Plomb augmentent de poids quand on les calcine.' To this inquiry it appears that Rey was incited by a letter from Sieur Brun, prefixed to the work, as the cause "qui a donné sujet au présent discours." M. Brun states that on subjecting two pounds six ounces of melted tin to the air in a pot, he found that it increased six ounces in weight, and applied to Rey to explain so unexpected a fact; and he afterwards made a similar experiment with lead, and with a corresponding result.

Rey, after refuting all the different explanations of this increase of weight which had been advanced, says, in his sixteenth essay:-"Now, to augment the difficulty, I say that we must not only inquire whence these seven ounces are derived, but moreover whence that which has replaced the loss of weight necessarily arising from the enlargement of the volume of the tin by its conversion into calx, and from the vapours and exhalations that have evaporated. To this question then, resting on the foundations that I have laid, I answer, and proudly maintain, that this increase of weight comes from the air, thickened and made heavy, and in some measure rendered adhesive on the vessel, by the violent and long-continued heat of the furnace, which air mixes with the calx (its union being assisted by the continual stirring), and attaches itself to its smallest particles, no otherwise than as water when sand is thrown into it makes it heavier by moistening it and adhering to its smallest grains." Rey died about 1645.

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Reynolds has recorded that when he first saw the grand works of Raffaelle in the Vatican, he was greatly disappointed. However, he did not for a moment suppose that Raffaelle owed his reputation to the ignorance or caprice of mankind: he felt his own ignorance, and stood abashed. All the undigested notions of excellence which he had brought with him from England were to be eradicated from his mind; he felt that he had originally formed a false opinion of the perfection of art; "and that if those works had really been what he expected, they would have contained beauties superficial and alluring, but by no means such as would have entitled them to the great reputation which they have so long and so justly obtained." Yet the works of Raffaelle had little, if any, permanent influence in forming his style, which belonged to a wholly different school.

Reynolds never made a practice of copying pictures or taking sketches of whole compositions, as is the habit with many young painters. He very properly considered copying a "delusive kind of industry;" yet he was in the habit of selecting parts of compositions which were of striking excellence, or from an attentive study of which he imagined he should derive substantial benefit. It was in studying the various great works in the Vatican, particularly those of Michel Angelo and Raffaelle, that he contracted a severe cold which caused a deafness for the remainder of his life. From Rome he went to Florence, Bologna, Parma, Modena, Milan, Padua, and Venice, where he lodged with Zuccarelli, the landscape painter. The great masters of Venice, Titian, Paul Veronese, and Tintoretto, had a far greater influence upon Reynolds's future practice than the great works in Rome. The rich effect of Venetian tone and colour were much more suited to his genius or taste, which decidedly inclined to the florid or ornamental; and however much his better judgment may have induced him to extol the grandeur of the Roman school in his 'Discourses,' it was the magnificence of the Venetian that captivated him, that guided his practice, that excited his emulation. From Venice he went through Turin to Paris, where he made a short stay, and returned to Plymouth towards the end of the year 1752, after an absence from England of three years and a half. At Plymouth he painted two portraits, one of which was of the Rev. Zachary Mudge, vicar of St. Andrews, and the old friend of his father.

By the advice of his early patron, Lord Mount Edgecombe, Reynolds returned to London, and again took apartments for a short time in St. Martin's-lane, where he painted his celebrated portrait of Joseph Marchi, in a Turkish dress, a young Italian whom he had brought with him as an assistant from Rome, a work which attracted much attention and brought him numerous sitters.

Reynolds's practice as a portrait-painter becoming very considerable, he took a house in Great Newport-street, where he continued some years. One of his first works of value was a portrait of the then Duke of Devonshire, but that which established his fame as the first

dore Keppel standing upon the sea-shore. It was about this time that he contracted an intimacy with Dr. Johnson, which only ended with the death of the latter. When Reynolds painted in St. Martin'slane, his prices were for a head 10 guineas, a half-length 20 guineas, and for a whole length 40 guineas; in Newport-street they were at first respectively 12, 24, and 48 guineas, but his practice increased so rapidly that in 1758 he raised his price to 20 guineas for a head, and in 1760 to 25 guineas, the other sizes being in proportion.

In the eleventh and subsequent volumes of the Royal Institution Journal' Mr. Children has given translations of various essays of Rey, which are extremely well worth perusal by those who are curious in the history of chemical discovery. We have already mentioned that Rey's work first appeared in 1630, and it was greatly neglected till 1777, when a new edition appeared; and it is remarked by Mr. Children that the "copies of this reprint disappeared in a very sudden and remarkable manner," and the fact has led to a suspicion that it was effected by Lavoisier and his friends, to avoid the imputation of pla-portrait-painter of his country was a full-length of his friend Commogiarism in his celebrated work which appeared about three years afterwards. Mr. Children and Dr. Thomson however are both inclined to give full credit to the assertion made by Lavoisier that he knew nothing of Rey's essays when he originally undertook his experiments. REYNOLDS, SIR JOSHUA, born at Plympton, July 16, 1723, of an ancient family of the county of Devon, was the son of the Rev. Samuel Reynolds, rector of Plympton St. Mary, and master of the free grammar-school there. He was originally intended for the medical profession, but he manifested when still a child so great a taste for drawing, that his father was induced to abandon his intention. Reynolds's natural inclination to the arts was much strengthened by studying the Jesuits' Perspective, but was finally confirmed, and became a passion, through the perusal of Richardson's treatise on painting, and he was from that time resolved to become a painter. He was accordingly, in 1741, in his eighteenth year, placed by his father for four years with Hudson, the principal portrait-painter of that time. Hudson's plan of instruction, that of setting his pupil to copy Guercino's drawings, had a decided influence upon Reynolds's future taste, and was probably a principal cause of the difficulty which he ever after experienced when drawing from the life. Reynolds and his master did not agree, and they separated in an unfriendly manner when half the period of the engagement had expired. Reynolds returned into Devonshire, and commenced his career as a portrait-painter, at Plymouth. He was fortunate in obtaining the patronage of Lord Mount Edgecombe, whose influence procured him introductions to distinguished naval officers of that port, amongst whom was Captain (afterwards Admiral Lord) Keppel, a connection that proved subsequently most valuable to him. His portraits exhibited at this early stage of his career decided traces of his future style. The portraits of William Gandy of Exeter, which he greatly admired for their bold and effective manner, tended not a little to confirm that taste which his previous education from Guercino was so well calculated to engender. After the death of his father, in 1746, Reynolds came to London, where he took apartments and commenced practice in St. Martin's-lane, then a favourite quarter with painters. In 1749 he accompanied Commodore Keppel as that officer's guest, in the Centurion, to the Mediterranean; and after a delay of two months at Miuorca, where he resided with the governor, General Blakeney, and during which time he painted the portraits of several naval and military officers, he embarked for Leghorn, and prosecuted his journey to Rome.

BIOG. DIV. VOL. V.

At this period he was in the habit of receiving six sitters a day, and he valued his time at five guineas an hour. In 1761 he purchased a house in Leicester-square, where he fitted up an elegant paintingroom, and built a spacious gallery for his rapidly-increasing collection of works of art; and here he resided the remainder of his life. His practice had now become so great, that he employed several assistants, of whom Marchi, the Italian, and Peter Toms, the celebrated painter of draperies, were the principal. This year the first public exhibition of works of art took place, in the room of the Society of Arts, in which Reynolds had four pictures, and in the exhibition of the following year, in Spring gardens, he exhibited his portrait of Lord Ligonier on horseback (now in the National Gallery), and one of Sterne. The pictures, though not to be compared with his later performances, from a peculiarity of style and a richness of effect which distinguished them from the works of other artists, attracted universal attention, and established Reynolds as the favourite of the public. In 1762 he painted his celebrated picture of Garrick between Tragedy and Comedy; it was bought by the Earl of Halifax for three hundred guineas, and has been engraved by Fisher. Dr. Johnson, in a letter witten this year to Baretti, says, "Mr. Reynolds gets six thousand a year." In 1764 Reynolds and Johnson instituted the Literary Club, which was then limited to twelve members: Goldsmith and Burke were of the number.

Upon the foundation of the Royal Academy, in 1768, Reynolds was unanimously chosen president, and the honour of knighthood was conferred on him upon the occasion. The Academy was opened on the 1st of January 1769, and the president delivered an appropriate discourse in commemoration of the event. Lecturing was no part of the duty of the president; it was a task which Sir Joshua imposed upon himself. He delivered altogether fifteen of these discourses, which have been translated into several languages, and have been generally and deservedly well received: they are too well known to

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require any particular comment here. They are certainly in many respects admirable; yet with much sound and original criticism, they contain much also that is questionable.

In 1770 Sir Joshua raised his price for a head to thirty-five guineas. In 1773 he painted his celebrated picture of Count Ugolino with his Sons, from Dante: it was purchased by the Duke of Dorset for four hundred guineas, and has been engraved by Dixon. This same year he proposed his plan of decorating St. Paul's Cathedral with a series of historical pictures, which was readily acceded to by Dr. Newton, bishop of Bristol and dean of St. Paul's; but Dr. Terrick, bishop of London, put a stop to the whole scheme, upon the plea that it was an introduction of popery: the other artists who had agreed to contribute works were West, Barry, Dance, Cipriani, and Angelica Kauffmann. This year is also memorable for two honorary distinctions which were conferred upon Sir Joshua; he was created Doctor of Civil Law by the University of Oxford; and was elected mayor of his native town, Plympton, a circumstance which gave him great gratification, and he presented the corporation with his portrait upon the occasion, which portrait however the corporation sold a few years back. About this time also he was elected member of the Imperial Academy of Florence, to which body he also sent his portrait. In 1779 he ornamented the ceiling of the library of the Royal Academy, in its apartments in Somerset House, with an allegorical painting representing Theory seated on a cloud, with the inscription "Theory is the knowledge of what is truly Nature," written upon a scroll in her hand. In this year he raised his price to fifty guineas for a head, which continued to be his charge during the remainder of his life.

In 1780 and the following years, Sir Joshua was engaged upon his designs for the celebrated window of New College Chapel, Oxford, consisting of seven compartments for the lower range, containing the allegorical figures of the four cardinal and the three Christian virtues, Temperance, Fortitude, Justice, Prudence, Faith, Hope, and Charity; and above them The Nativity, lighted after the manner of the famous Notte' of Correggio. These designs were executed on the glass by Jervis of Dublin. The original design for the Nativity was purchased by the duke of Rutland for twelve hundred guineas, and was destroyed by the fire at Belvoir Castle in 1816; there is an engraving of it by Earlom.

In 1784 Sir Joshua painted his magnificent allegorical portrait of Mrs. Siddons as the Tragic Muse, a picture of its class perhaps unrivalled. According to Northcote, Sir Joshua valued this portrait at a thousand guineas; but it was purchased by W. Smith, Esq., for seven hundred: it has been engraved by Hayward. Upon the death of Allan Ramsay, this year, Sir Joshua was appointed principal painter in ordinary to the king. This year he also lost his old friend Dr. Johnson, who appointed him one of his executors, and bequeathed him his great French dictionary of Moreri and his own corrected folio copy of his English dictionary.

In 1786 he painted his 'Infant Hercules strangling the Serpents in the Cradle,' for the Empress Catherine of Russia: it was sent to St. Petersburg, with two sets of Sir Joshua's Discourses, one in French, the other in English, in 1789; and the following year, the Russian ambassador, Count Woronzow, presented him with a gold box, having the portrait of the empress upon the lid, set with large diamonds. His executors afterwards received fifteen hundred guineas as the price of the picture. This picture, which was remarkable for its rich effect of colour and forcible chiaroscuro, was the principal of Sir Joshua's historical pieces, and met with universal applause from the critics of the day. Even the eccentric Barry approved of it: he said "the prophetical agitation of Tiresias, and Juno enveloped with clouds, hanging over the scene like a black pestilence, can never be too much admired, and are indeed truly sublime." The leading features of the composition were apparently taken from the 'Iconic' of the younger Philostratus on the subject: it has been engraved in mezzotinto by Hodges.

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Sir Joshua painted three pictures for Alderman Boydell's Shakspere, the Cauldron Scene in Macbeth,' Puck in Midsummer Night's Dream,' and the 'Death of Cardinal Beaufort. For the first of these pieces the alderman paid Sir Joshua one thousand guineas, for the second one hundred, and for the third five hundred guineas.

Towards the end of 1791, a tumour, accompanied with inflammation, formed over his left eye; and being apprehensive lest the right should also be affected, he felt it necessary to desist from any further practice in his profession. He accordingly sent a letter to the council of the Academy, intimating his intention of resigning the office of president, on account of bodily infirmities; but he was induced to retain it upon the appointment of West as a deputy. He never again however resumed the chair; but died a few months afterwards, after a painful illness, of a disease of the liver, February 23rd, 1792, in the sixtyninth year of his age; and on his body being opened by Hunter, his liver was found to be more than double its natural size. The body of Sir Joshua Reynolds, after lying in state in Somerset-House, was buried with great pomp in St. Paul's Cathedral, where some years after, a statue, executed by Flaxman, was erected to his memory. The principal portion of his property, which amounted upon the whole to 80,000l., he bequeathed to his niece, Miss Palmer, who shortly afterwards was married to the Earl of Inchiquin, subsequently created Marquis of Thomond. His collection of works of art sold for

RHAM, WILLIAM LEWIS.

about 17,000l., including several of his own works, and many unfinished and unclaimed portraits.

When we consider Sir Joshua's expensive habits and his liberal disposition, this large property enables us to form some idea of the immense patronage that he enjoyed. Upon the whole, his career from the beginning to the end exhibits an example of uninterrupted and brilliant prosperity that has perhaps never been surpassed. There are engravings from upwards of seven hundred of his works, mostly in mezzotinto. Northcote has given a list of about three hundred of his principal performances. The day after Sir Joshua's death a brilliant eulogium from the pen of Burke, who was one of his executors, appeared in the papers.

"As to his person," says Northcote, "in his stature Sir Joshua Reynolds was rather under the middle size, of a florid complexion, roundish blunt features, and a lively aspect; not corpulent, though somewhat inclined to it, but extremely active; with manners uncommonly polished and agreeable. In conversation his manner was perfectly natural, simple, and unassuming." He was never married. Sir Joshua Reynolds's literary productions, besides his discourses, were three contributions to the 'Idler,' some notes to Mason's translation of Du Fresnoy's Art of Painting;' a few notes for Dr. Johnson's edition of Shakspere; and his remarks upon the works of the Dutch and Flemish painters during his tour through Flanders and Holland in 1781. These last are full of admirable criticism, and display a rare discrimination of merits and demerits according to the intents and means of the various painters. It was during this tour that he first learnt to appreciate the wonderful powers of Rubens; he says of him, "he was perhaps the greatest master in the mechanical part of the art, the best workman with his tools that ever exercised a pencil." Several complete editions of his works have been published. Reynolds has been justly said to be the founder of the British school of painting. Through a happy combination, and a judicious and powerful application of qualities, whether originating in natural feeling or acquired by selection from other masters, he struck out a new path in portrait, and by uniting graceful composition and breadth of light and shade with a rich and mellow tone of colouring, he invented a style of his own. This was a style, through its novelty and richness of effect, well calculated to captivate the taste of a public accustomed to the dry and feeble manner of the painters immediately preceding him, whether a Hudson, a Jervas, or a Kneller. But these attractive qualities, being the chief aim of the painter, naturally involved the sacrifice of some of those more solid properties of art through which alone true expression and individual character can be thoroughly attained, which we find more or less so well illustrated in the heads of Holbein, Raffaelle, and Vandyck, and which must always be imperfectly given when the features, though admirably placed, are merely indicated, however rich the colour, and however great the effect. The deficiencies of Sir Joshua's style are more striking in his historical pieces than in his portraits. Its great characteristic, effect, and effect founded upon colour, is incompatible with the qualities peculiarly characteristic of the grand style-simplicity, severity, and dignity of expression, which can only result from the union of a grand style of design with a subdued colour.

RHAM, WILLIAM LEWIS, was born at Utrecht, in the Netherlands, in 1778; and of this country his father was, we believe, a native, but his mother was of Swiss birth. Mr. Rham came to England in early life. He studied for some time at Edinburgh, with a view to the medical profession; but eventually the Church became his destination, and he entered at Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1806, being then in his twenty-eighth year, he took his degree, and his name appears on the Tripos as tenth wrangler. In 1808 Mr. Rham was presented by the dean and chapter of Salisbury to the living of Winkfield, Berkshire; and a few years afterwards the Nassau family presented him to that of Fersfield in Norfolk. He died unmarried at Winkfield, after a short illness, on the 31st of October 1843.

The life of Mr. Rham was characterised by active and unremitting usefulness as a parochial clergyman. He was the friend of the poor in the best sense of the term. He looked beyond the wants of the moment, and sought the means to improve and elevate as well as temporarily to benefit the objects of his benevolence. At the Winkfield School of Industry, which under his fostering care became a model for all similar institutions in country parishes, the young were taught not only the elements of knowledge, but were instructed in agriculture and useful arts, and trained to habits of industry. Such were the means by which he endeavoured to promote the best interests of his parishioners.

But it is as a scientific agriculturist that Mr. Rham's name is most widely known; and during a large part of his life it was perhaps better known in other countries than in England. His early connection with the Continent, which was kept up in after-life, afforded scope for observation of the husbandry of different countries; and his thorough knowledge of several living languages gave him access to the works of scientific writers on foreign agriculture. In the next place, his chemical studies at Edinburgh, while preparing for the medical profession, were of eminent service to him; and scarcely less so was the proficiency in mathematics which he attained at Cambridge. It may safely be asserted that no previous writer on agriculture ever enjoyed in so great a degree such a combination of advantages; and

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to his knowledge of the chemical and mechanical departments of agriculture there was united a thorough acquaintance with its routine details. On his farm at Winkfield he engaged in his favourite pursuit with a practical perception of its details, and a scientific knowledge of its processes, which had probably never before been possessed by one person. Thus, above all other writers of his day on the subject of agriculture, Mr. Rham was eminently fitted by his excellent judgment and sound sense, to be useful to the country in the existing state of its husbandry and rural economy. He was an active member of the council and upon the committees of the Royal Society of Agriculture from its formation in 1838. Mr. Rham wrote the chief agricultural articles, including those on the agriculture of the several counties, in the Penny Cyclopædia;' and from these, those on the principal subjects of interest to the agriculturist were collected in a volume entitled The Dictionary of the Farm.' He wrote the last article of this series (Yorkshire Agriculture') in 1843, only a few weeks before his death. He was also the author of 'Flemish Husbandry,' a small work written for the 'Farmers' Series of the Library of Useful Knowledge.' This work was founded on a pedestrian tour in Flanders, in which, for many weeks, he walked from farm to farm, enjoying the rough hospitality of an industrious population, speaking their language readily, and entering into their pursuits with the zeal of a skilful and sympathising friend. The Essay on the Analysis of Soils,' for which he obtained the prize offered by the Royal Society of Agriculture, is published in the society's Journal, which also contains some other valuable contributions from his pen. Not long before his death he had also commenced a series of papers on agriculture and rural economy in the 'Gardeners' Chronicle,' edited by Dr. Lindley.

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RHAZES, or RAZES, the common Latinised name of one of the most famous of the ancient Arabic physicians, who is also sometimes called RASEUS, RASES, RASIS, RAZEUS, RAZEUS, RAZI, RHASES, RHAZEUS, RHAZIS, or ARRASI. His names (as given by the anonymous author of the Arabic. Philosoph. Biblioth.,' quoted by Casiri, Biblioth. ArabicoHisp. Escur,' tom. i., p. 264) were Mohammed Ben-Zakaria Abu-Bekr Al-Razi. He was born and brought up at Rai, the most northern town (according to D'Herbelot, Biblioth. Orient.') of Irak Ajemi, and showed from his youth a great inclination for the sciences. He acquired great philological and philosophical knowledge, but chiefly devoted himself to music; and even in his thirtieth year he was only known for his skill in singing and playing on the guitar. He afterwards, when past the age of forty (Ahulfeda, 'Annal. Musl.,' tom. ii, p. 347) applied himself exclusively to the study of medicine and philosophy, and repaired to Baghdad, where Ibn Zein Al-Taberi was his instructor, from whom he acquired much important information. Upon his return to Rai he became director of the hospital in that town, and afterwards of that at Baghdad. He was held in great estimation by the contemporary princes, and was called the Galen of his time. He travelled much, and visited both Jerusalem and Africa: he is said also to have visited Spain (Leo Afric., De Viris Illustr. Arab.,' cap. 6; apud Fabric., Biblioth. Græc.,' tom. xiii.), where, in passing through the streets of Cordova, he saw a crowd collected round the body of a man who was said to have just fallen down dead. He caused him to be beaten all over with rods, and particularly on the soles of his feet, and thus in less than a quarter of an hour restored him to life. Upon being asked about the invention of this singular remedy, he said that he had seen it used with success in a similar case by an old Arab; and added, that "experience is of more use than a physician." To Prince Al-Mansor, to whom he dedicated his work entitled 'Ketáb Almansouri' ('Liber ad Almansorem'), he wished also to present his Confirmatio Artis Chimiæ,' and left Baghdad for this purpose. The prince was much pleased, and gave him a thousand dinars; but wished at the same time to see a trial of the discoveries described in the book, and granted a considerable sum for the preparation of the necessary apparatus. The experiments however did not succeed, which so enraged Al-Mansor that he called him a liar, struck him a violent blow on the head, and ordered him to pack up his things quickly and go back to Baghdad. (Ibn Khallikán, 'Vitæ Illustr. Viror.) This blow is said to have afterwards occasioned his becoming blind, but Abulfaraj (Hist. Dynast.,' p. 291) and Casiri (loco cit.) attribute this misfortune to eating beans. At first he wished to have an operation performed; but as the surgeon could not tell him how many membranes the eye contained, he refused to let him touch his eyes; and when some one represented to him that the operation might nevertheless succeed, he replied, "I have seen so much of the world that I am wearied of it." He was so charitable and liberal that he often gave money to his poor patients, and lived himself in poverty. He died at an advanced age, either at Baghdad or Rai, A.H. 311, or more probably 320 (A.D. 923 or 932), under the kalifat of Moctader Billah, the eighteenth of the race of the Abbasides. (Wüstenfeld, 'Gesch. der Arab. Aerzte.')

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His works amounted to more than two hundred, and the bare titles, as given by the anonymous author quoted above, take up four folio columns in Casiri; of these only those that have been published can be noticed here; and for a more complete account of his medical opinions and practice, the reader may consult Freind's Hist. of Physic,' Sprengel's Hist. de la Méd.,' and Haller's 'Biblioth. Medic. Pract. The principal work of his that we possess is called 'Al-Háwi' ('Continens'). An attentive perusal of this book is sufficient to prove

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that Rhazes could not have published it in its present form, as the diseases are mentioned without the least order; the treatment of many of them is not touched upon; the author is sometimes quoted in the third person ('Rhaz. Contin.,' lib. vi., cap. 1, page 125, col. 2; lib. viii., cap. 2, page 176, col. 4); and lastly, one meets with the names of several Greek physicians more modern than Rhazes. To all these arguments against the authenticity of the work may be added the important testimonies of Haly-Abbas and Abulfaraj. The former gives Rhazes all the praise he really deserves; but adds that the 'Al-Hawi' is certainly not the most evident proof of his science and good taste, but that probably he only left the work to his descendants in the form of an unfinished sketch. (Haly-Abbas, 'Prolog.,' 4to, page 6, ed. Ludg., 1523.) Abulfaraj says positively that the authentic Al-Hawi' was never published. (Chron. Syr.,' page 172, ed. Bruns et Kirsch.) Notwithstanding these unanswerable proofs against the authenticity of the work, it cannot be doubted that great part of it was written by Rhazes; and it will always be considered one of the most valuable repositories of the medical science of the Arabians. (Sprengel, Hist. de la Méd.') The original Arabic has never appeared; but several Latin translations (under the various titles 'Elhavi,' 'Helchauy,' Elcbavi,' 'Elkavi,' 'Hawi,' &c.) were published in the 15th and 16th centuries. The first edition is scarce, and was printed at Brescia (Brixia), 2 vols. fol., 1486, in black-letter, with two columns in a page, under the following title: Liber Elhavi, seu Totum Continentis Bubikir Zacharie Errasis Filii, traducti ex Arab. in Latin. per Mag. Ferragium, Medicum Salerni,' &c. The last edition is probably that by Hieron. Surianus, fol., Venet., 1542.

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The most celebrated of his works is his treatise on the small-pox and measles, which is the oldest account that we possess of these two diseases. "He was not however the first writer on the subject, for he himself quotes from Aaron and other of his countrymen, who had formerly given imperfect histories of these diseases." Of this little work there is an edition in Arabic and Latin, by J. Channing, Lond., 8vo, 1766. It was printed from a manuscript at Leyden, and Dr. Russell says (Append. to Nat. Hist. of Aleppo') that he had the book collated with other manuscripts in the East, and that the readings were upon the whole found very exact. It has been translated into several ancient and modern languages. There is an English translation in the English edition of Dr. Mead's medical works.

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The ten books, dedicated to Al-Mansor, Ketáb Almansouri,' 'Liber ad Almansorem,' contain a complete system of medicine, drawn from Arabic and Greek sources. The first book is on anatomy and physiology; the second, De Significationibus Temperaturarum;' the third, 'De Alimentis et Simplicibus;' the fourth, 'De Sanitatis Tuendæ Ratione;' the fifth, 'De Morbis Cutis, et de Cosmeticis; the sixth, De Victu Peregrinantium;' the seventh, De Chirurgia;' the eighth, De Venenis; the ninth, De Curatione Omnium Partium;' and the tenth, De Febribus.' The writers from whom the work is chiefly compiled are Hippocrates, Galen, Oribasius, Paulus Ægineta, and Aëtius. It contains an excellent treatise on the qualities necessary for a physician (Tract iv., cap. 32, pag. 78, ed. Lugd., 8vo, 1511). There is also a very curious chapter (Tract vii., cap. 27, pag. 123) on quacks and impostors, which has been translated and inserted by Freind, in his History of Physic.' He is said by Jo. Bapt. Silvaticus (Controv. Med.,' sec. 14) to be the first person who recommended intoxication once or twice a month ('Almans. Tract.,' iv., cap. 5, pag. 64), which precept was repeated by Avicenna ('Cantic.,' part ii., sec. 34, pag. 383, ed. Venet., 1564), and others, and vigorously opposed at Paris in the 17th century, in two thesis, by Hommets and Langlois. The ninth book was for several centuries one of the most celebrated text-books for medical students, but, notwithstanding its fame, Sprengel and Haller both declare that it contains nothing original. The Al-Mansor to whom the work is dedicated has by some been supposed to be the kalif of Baghdad, who lived above two centuries before the time of Rhazes, by others a prince of Cordova, who lived long after. Rbazes himself solves the difficulty, and says (Antidotar. Prolog.,' pag. 78, b. ed. Venet., 1500) that he was a prince of Khorassán (domino Corascem'), and nephew of the kalif Moktasi, named Al Mansour Ibn Isbac Ibn Israel Ibn Ahmed. The whole of the Arabic original of this work has never been published, but a small extract (lib. ix., cap. 7) is inserted, with a Latin translation, in Reiske's 'Opusc. Med. ex Moni ment. Arab.,' p. 70, sq. The first Latin translation was published with several other of his smaller works, Mediol., folio, 1481, in blackletter; the last edition came out at Basel, folio, 1544. There are also several other works that have been published with the Liber ad Almansorem,' for example, Liber Divisionum,' Aphorismi,' 'De Juncturis,' 'Antidotarium,' 'De Morbis Infantum,' Introductio in Medicinam,'' De Calculo Renum et Vesicæ,' 'De Facultatibus Partium Animalium,' &c. None of these little works contain anything of much importance.

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RHENA'NUS, BEA'TUS, was born in 1485, at Schlettstadt in Alsace. His father, though originally a butcher of Rheinach (whence the name Rhenanus), was a man of considerable property, and gave his son the best education that could be had in those times. After the boy had finished his elementary education, his father sent him to Paris where he studied philosophy and ancient literature. From Paris ha went to Strasbourg and Basel, and in the latter place he formed an intimate friendship with Erasmus and Gelenius. During his residence

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at Paris he had been employed in the office of the learned printer H. Stephens, and he occupied himself in a similar manner in the printing establishment of Froben at Basel. In 1520 his father died, and left him all his property; but although Rhenanus retired to Schlettstadt, he continued his favourite study of the ancients with the same zeal; and in order not to be disturbed, he requested and obtained from the Emperor Charles V. an exemption from all public offices. He had always objected to marrying, but at last his friends prevailed upon him, and at the advanced age of sixty-one he married. A few months afterwards he was attacked by a disease, from which he sought relief in the baths of Baden, but as they only increased his sufferings, he returned home, and on his way thither he died, at Strasbourg, on the 20th of May 1547. His body was carried to his native place, and buried there.

Rhenanus is chiefly celebrated as the editor of many ancient authors, on whom he bestowed great care, with the view of giving a correct text. The following is a chronological list of most of his editions:Quintus Curtius,' Basel, 1517; 'Maximus Tyrius,' Basel, 1519; 'Velleius Paterculus,' Basel, 1520 (this is the editio princeps of that historian); ‘Tertulliani Opera, Basel, 1521; 'Auctores Historiæ Ecclesiasticæ,' containing Eusebius, Pamphilus, Nicephorus, Theodoret, &c., 1523-25 (reprinted at Paris in 1541); 'Plinius, Historia Naturalis,' Basel, 1526; Procopius Cæsariensis, De Rebus Gothorum,' Basel, 1531; Tacitus,' Basel, 1533; reprinted in 1544; 'Livii Decades Tres, Basel, 1535.

Among the original works of Rhenanus we may mention-'Præfatio in Marsilii Defensionem Pacis pro Ludovico IV. Imperatore, adversus iniquas Ecclesiasticorum Usurpationes,' Basel, 1522. This work was published under the assumed name of Licentius Euangelus, sacerdos. Illyrici provinciarum utrique Imperio cum Romano tum Constanti nopolitano servientis Descriptio,' published at Paris in 1602, together with the Notitia dignitatum imperii Romani.' 'Rerum Germanicarum,' libri iii., Basel, 1531: this work has often been reprinted. The edition of Sturm (Basel, 1551) contains a good Life of Rhenanus. He also translated several works from the Greek into Latin, such as some works of S. Gregorius Nazianzenus, part of the writings of Origines, in the edition of Erasmus, &c.

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RHE'TICUS. The real name of this individual was George Joachim. He was born February 16, 1514, at Feldkirch, a small town situated a few miles south of Lake Constance, and was surnamed Rheticus from the circumstance of this part of the Tyrol having been anciently inhabited by the Rhæti. When twenty-three years old he was appointed professor of elementary mathematics in the university of Wittenberg, the higher chair being at that time filled by Reinhold; but after teaching there with some repute for about two years, he relinquished his appointment in order to become the disciple and assistant of Copernicus, whose doctrines he advocated with much zeal and personal risk. His letter to Schöner, entitled 'Narratio de Libris Revolutionum Copernici,' wherein he endeavoured to show that the rotation of the earth about the sun is not a mere probable hypothesis, as Copernicus had thought fit to announce it, but an incontestable truth, and asserts that if Aristotle himself were living, he would be the first to acknowledge his error, excited against him the ill-will of the leading advocates of the Ptolemaic system. This letter appeared in 1540, Danzig, 4to; was reprinted the following year at Basel, and appended to the work of Copernicus, 'De Revolutionibus,' Basel, 1566; and to Kepler's 'Prodromus Dissertat.,' Tübing., 1596. He resumed his professorship in 1541-42; and in the latter year were published his Orationes de Astronomiâ, Geographia, et Physica,' Nürnb. He subsequently visited different parts of Germany, taught for some time at Leipzig, and died of apoplexy at Cashau, in the north of Hungary, the 4th of December 1576. (Zedler.) Rheticus has left an indisputable proof of extraordinary industry and devotedness to science in a posthumous work, entitled 'Opus Palatinum de Triangulis à Georgio-Joachimo-Rhetico coeptum, L. Valentinus Otho, principis palatini Frederici IV., electoris mathematicus consummavit, Neostadii in Palatinatu,' folio, 1596. The least important part of this work is the introductory treatise on Trigonometry, in nine books, of which the first four, relating to right-angled triangles, were written by Rheticus, and the other five, on oblique triangles, by his pupil Otho. They comprise four hundred and eighty-one folio pages, which, observes Delambre, might be compressed into ten.

As authors, Delambre declares that Rheticus and Otho were the most prolix and obscure that he had ever met with. After the introductory treatise follows a table of sines, cosines, tangents, cotangents, secants, and cosecants, to every ten seconds of the quadrant, and to a radius of 10,000,000,000. Nearly the whole of this extensive table, which must have been of inestimable value to the astronomer, was the work of Rheticus, though the contrary might be inferred from the statements of Montucla and Lalande. The sines were originally computed by him to fifteen places of figures, and were correct to the fourteenth, as was shown by M. Prony, in the fifth volume of the Mémoires de l'Institut;' but only the first ten were inserted in the 'Opus Palatinum.' The table of tangents and secants was not quite complete when Rheticus died. Those which were wanting were added by Otho. The whole were computed to ten places of figures, of which only the first eight could be relied on. Pitiscus subsequently computed the tangents and secants as far as eleven

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places of figures (Montucla says sixteen), which, with the rest of the table of Rheticus, he published in 1613, under the title of Thesaurus Mathematicus.' It is to the labours of Pitiscus that Montucla ascribes most praise, designating them "the most remarkable monument of human patience, the more meritorious as it was accompanied by so little glory," which observes Delambre, would be true if the name of Rheticus were substituted for that of Pitiscus, whom he considers to have been little more than the editor of the 'Thesaurus Mathematicus.' (See the Astronomie Moderne,' ii., p. 34.) The only terms employed in the 'Opus Palatinum' to express the several functions of an arc, are base, perpendicular, and hypothenuse; the terms tangent and secant had not then been introduced, and the appellation sine, which had been generally employed by Müller and others, was rejected by Rheticus. The construction of the canon is understood to have commenced in the year 1540.

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Rheticus had intended to publish two treatises in German on astronomy and philosophy generally, and had announced a work on chemistry, in seven books, none of which have appeared. In these his chief aim was to abolish hypothesis, and to rest exclusively on observation.

(Zedler, Grosses Universal Lexicon, xiv. 812; Kästner, Geschichte der Mathematik, i. 561-62; Delambre, Astron. Mod., ii. 1-25; Weiss, Biog. Univ., art. Joachim;' see also Adani, Vit. Philos. Germ.; and Vossius, De Mathem.)

RHIA'NUS, a Greek poet, was a native of Bena in Crete, and lived about the time of Eratosthenes. He was originally a slave who had a kind of superintendence over a palæstra, but he subsequently became a learned grammarian, and wrote several poems: one of them was a Hpákλeia, consisting of four books. Another of his poems, called Meoσnviakά, contained a poetical description of the second Messenian war, of which we probably possess the substance in the account given by Pausanias in his fourth book. Other poems of Rhianus were the eσσaλiká, 'Axaikά, and 'Hλiakά. Athenæus (xi. p. 499) also mentions epigrams of Rhianus. The Emperor Tiberius is said to have been very fond of the poems of Rhianus, and even to have imitated them. (Sueton., 'Tiber.,' c. 70.) The few extant fragments of his works are collected in Brunck's 'Analecta,' in Jacob's Anthologia Græca,' in Gaisford's Poet. Græci Minor,' and separately in a little book by N. Saal, under the title Rhiani quae supersunt,' Bonn, 1831. Compare A. Meineke's essay, 'Ueber den Dichter Rhianos,' in the 'Transactions of the Berlin Academy,' 1834, and his 'Analecta Alexandria, Berlin, 1843. RHIZOS RHANGAVIS. [RIZO RANGABE.]

RHODOMANNUS, LAURENTIUS, was born in 1546, at Sassawerft, on the estates of the counts of Stolberg. His parents were poor, and as the boy early displayed great talents, Count Stolberg sent him at his own expense to the gymnasium at Ilfeld. Greek literature, which was then reviving in Germany, had most attractions for him, and he made it his principal study at the University of Rostock. After the completion of his studies, he held several offices as teacher, but was afterwards invited to the professorship of Greek literature in the University of Jena, and subsequently to that of history at Wittemberg, where he died on the 8th of January 1606.

Rhodomannus is said to have been extremely ugly, but his learning and amiable qualities soon effaced the unfavourable impression created by his appearance. His greatest merits consist in his efforts to diffuse a taste for Greek poetry, and he endeavoured to attain this object by making Greek verses himself, in which he is said to have been very successful. We still possess a number of works by Rhodomannus, in Greek verse with Latin translations, viz.: Vita Lutheri, Græco car. mine descripta et Latine reddita,' Ursel, 1579; 'Descriptio historia ecclesiæ, &c., Græco carmine cum versione Latina, e regione textus Græci,' Frankfurt, 1581; Poesis Christiana, id est, Palæstina, seu Historiæ Sacræ, Græco-Latinæ, libri ix.,' Marpurg, 1589; Theologiæ Christianæ Tyrocinia, carmine heroico Græco-Latino, libri v.,' Lipsiæ, 1597, &c. Rhodomannus also made some Latin translations of Greek authors, as of Diodorus Siculus, which is printed in the edition of H. Stephens (1604); of the 'Posthomerica' of Quintus Calaber; he also made a translation of extracts from Photii Bibliotheca' and Diodorus Siculus, under the title of 'Memnonis Historia de Republica Heracleensium et Rebus Ponticis Ecloga,' Helmstadii, 1591, and reprinted at Geneva in 1593. Rhodomannus edited the following collection of Greek poems :-'Anonymi Poetæ Græci : Argonautica, Thebaica, Troica, Ilias parva, Arion, Narratio de Bello Trojano e Constantini Manassis Annal.,' &c., Lips., 1588. His Life has been written in Latin, by Ch. H. Lang, Lübeck, 1741.

RIBALTA, FRANCISCO, a distinguished Spanish painter of the school of Valencia, was born at Castellon de la Plana in 1551. When very young he fell in love with his master's daughter, but the father (his name is not mentioned) would not consent to a marriage, on the plea that Ribalta was not sufficiently advanced in his profession. Upon this he determined to go to Rome, and his mistress plighted her faith to him. At Rome he studied the works of Raffaelle, and par ticularly of Sebastian del Piombo. Upon his return to Valencia after an absence of three or four years his professional improvement at once procured him the hand of his mistress. Ribalta soon obtained great reputation. His first public work was the Last Supper, ordered

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