when he published the third volume of his 'Elements. In 1828, a few weeks before his death, he published his 'View of the Active and Moral Powers,' by far the least exceptionable of his works. It is more systematic and contains more new truths than any of his metaphysical writings, and his long acquaintance with the world and with letters enabled him to suggest many obvious but overlooked analyses. It is not a profound, but it is an agreeable book. Dugald Stewart died on the 11th of June 1828, in the seventy-fifth year of his age, and was buried in the Canongate churchyard, Edinburgh.

We have also to add to the list of his philosophical writings an interesting 'Account of a Boy born blind and deaf,' to which no date is affixed.

The admirers of Dugald Stewart style him the Plato of the Scotch school, to which title he has undoubtedly as much claim as Reid has to that of Socrates. But without having himself discovered any important elements which others had overlooked, without even reducing to a system the discoveries of his predecessors, it cannot be denied that his influence was a beneficial one, for he not only strengthened the weaker parts of the ethical doctrines of Ferguson and Reid (Victor Cousin, Fragmens Philosophiques,' p. 78), and rendered the metaphysical doctrines of Reid less objectionable and confused, by substituting the "laws of human thought or belief" for the absurd "common sense' or "instinct" which Reid assumed as final arbiters, but he also adorned the school by every charm of mild enthusiasm and elegance of diction, and rendered the study attractive, by enlisting in its cause the aid of much elegant literature and an exquisite taste, at least such as was in those days regarded as exquisite, when an exclusive regard to diction was the exercise of the most refined taste. "Few writers," remarks his friendly critic, "rise with more grace from a plain groundwork to the passages which require greater animation or embellishment. He gives to narrative, according to the precept of Bacon, the colour of the time, by a selection of happy expressions from original writers. Among the secret arts by which he diffuses elegance over his diction, may be remarked the skill which, by deepening or brightening a shade in a secondary term, by opening partial or preparatory glimpses of a thought to be afterwards unfolded, unobservedly heightens the import of a word, and gives it a new meaning without offence against old use." (Edin. Rev.,' 1816.) Sir James Mackintosh afterwards repeated this verbatim in his 'Preliminary Dissertation,' p. 321; so that it may be regarded as his deliberate judgment. A want of depth, indeed of speculative power, is everywhere manifested in Stewart's writings, and the most glaring contradictions to his own principles impeach his logical rigour; but the style and his calm earnestness always render his works interesting to students.

STIEGLITZ, CHRISTIAN LUDWIG, was born on the 12th of December 1756, at Leipzig, in which city both his grandfather and father were persons of station, the former, who died in 1758, having been burgomaster, and the other holding the office of proconsul. Surrounded at home with objects of art-for his father possessed both a collection of pictures and a cabinet of medals and minerals-Stieglitz imbibed from them almost in his childhood those tastes which he so assiduously cultivated throughout life, although they were altogether remote from his other studies and occupations. Though he lost his father early (May 4th, 1772), in conformity with his wishes he applied himself to jurisprudence and other studies at the university of his native city, where he attended the courses of all the most eminent professors of that day-Ernesti, Winkler, Platner, &c. He took his Bachelor's degree in 1777, and in 1784 that of Doctor of Laws, on which latter occasion he produced his dissertation De Causis cur Jus Feudale Germanicum in Germania neglectum sit.' In the meanwhile he devoted all his leisure to literature and art, and in 1775 made his first essay in poetry, in which, if he did not distinguish himself, he continued occasionally to exercise his pen, for he contributed many pieces to a collection of Kriegslieder, or War-Songs, published in 1778; and in 1801 he published 'Wartburg,' a poem in eight cantos, long since forgotten. He also published some tales of romance and chivalry; but it was in a very different field from that of the poet or novelist that he gained his reputation and rendered essential service to a branch of literature which is more indebted to the labours of nonprofessional writers in it than of those who practise the art. It was in 1786 that he appeared, though then anonymously, as an architectural writer, with his 'Versuch über die Baukunst. He next contributed to the Neue Bibliothek der Schönen Wissenschaften' several essays and minor treatises on various subjects relative to the aesthetics of architecture and decoration, one or two of which appear to have been also published separately. In 1792, the same year in which he was made a member of the Rathscollegium, or Council of Leipzig, he first brought out his History of the Architecture of the Ancients' ('Geschichte der Baukunst der Alten'), and immediately afterwards engaged in a work of some extent, namely, his Encyclopædia of Civil Architecture,' in 5 vols., the first of which appeared in 1792, the last in 1798. In the interim he brought out a work upon Modern Gardening, which came to a second edition in 1804. His next production was his Artistische Blätter' (1800), a collection of papers on Decoration. In 1804 he began to publish, under the title of Zeichnungen aus der schönen Baukunst,' a series of engravings, plans, and elevations,

intended as select specimens of modern architecture; but though it was exceedingly well received-for not only did it reach a second edition, but there was also a French one-the choice compromised both his judgment and taste, the majority of the specimens partaking of that feeble and insipid mannerism which had just before prevailed in this country; and a great many of the subjects were taken from English publications-those for instance of Adam and Lewis-or showed English buildings, and among others such examples as the Trinity House, London, and the County Hall at Chelmsford. How he could reconcile them with his own theoretical principles is difficult to be understood.

Whether it was owing to his being satisfied with what he had then done for architecture, or afterwards dissatisfied with his last work, some years elapsed before he again published anything on the subject, turning in the interim to studies more professedly archæological; the fruits of which were an essay on 'Medals and Collections of Coins' (1809), a treatise on the Pigments employed by the Artists of Antiquity' (1818), and Archeologische Unterhaltungen' (1820). In the same year with the last-mentioned publication came out his excellent work on 'Ancient or Medieval German Architecture' (‘AltDeutsche Baukunst'), which contributed not a little to direct attention to and inspire that taste for medieval art and its monuments which has since struck root and grown up in Germany. His next work was his 'Geschichte der Baukunst,' a valuable compendium of the history of architecture from the very earliest periods, and among all nations; the first edition of which appeared in 1827, and the second, a greatly enlarged one, in 1837. Contrary to the opinion of Hirt [HIRT, ALOYSIUS], Stieglitz contends very strongly that Grecian architecture must have derived its principles and characteristics from an original construction of stone, and not of timber or wooden framing. The list of his literary labours is farther extended by his Distributio Nummorum familiarum Romanarum,' 1830, and his 'Beiträge zur Geschichte der Ausbildung der Baukunst,' 2 vols., 1834; and it would be prodigiously increased were it possible to enumerate all the various articles which he contributed to the Hermes,' the Kunstblatt,' and other journals, and to Ersch and Grüber's Encyclopædia. After having held the office of proconsul in the magistracy of Leipzig, and other appointments connected with the town government, Stieglitz retired from public duties in 1830, though he retained the title and distinction of proconsul; and in 1834 the jubilee or fiftieth anni versary of his obtaining his Doctor's degree was celebrated by his townsmen, and a silver medal was struck and presented to him on that occasion. He died on the 17th of July 1836.

In Förster's Bauzeitung' for 1838 there is a portrait of Stieglitz accompanying a full memoir of him, which we have made use of for this article.

STIFEL, or STIFE'LIUS, MICHAEL, a celebrated German algebraist of the 16th century, was born at Eslingen, in Saxony; the year of his birth is not known with certainty, but, according to Vossius, it was in 1509, He was a Lutheran clergyman, and a contemporary of Cardan; and it may be mentioned as a remarkable circumstance, that algebra should at the same time have been diligently studied both in the north and south of Europe, apparently without any intercourse being maintained among the persons who were engaged in the pursuit. Of the men who distinguished themselves in the north may be mentioned Rudolph, Stifel, Scheubel, and Stevin; and among those of the south were Ferreus, Cardan, Tartaglia, and Ferrari. The notation employed in Germany differed in some respects from that which was used in Italy; and from this circumstance it has been imagined that the mathematicians of the two countries obtained the first principles of the science from distinct sources.

Stifel's first publication was a treatise on algebra, in German; but in 1544, that is, a year before Cardan's rule concerning cubic equations came out, he published at Nuremberg, in Latin, the Arithmetica Integra,' which is his principal work. It is divided into three books, of which the first is a treatise on arithmetic; the second, a commentary on Euclid's tenth book; and the third, a treatise on algebra. He appears to have been the first who used the signs + and - between quantities, in order to indicate addition and subtraction: the first power of the 'res' (the unknown quantity) in an equation he desig nates the root of the equation, and represents it by a letter of the alphabet: he employs the initial letters of the words, and also the numbers 2, 3, &c., both positive and negative, to denote the corresponding powers of the quantities to which they are affixed, and he calls the numbers so applied the exponents of the powers, as they are called at present. He uses the radical sign to designate a root, but he has no mark to denote equality, the word itself being employed for that purpose.

In one of the chapters he demonstrates, from the nature of arithmetical and geometrical progressions, that the addition and subtraction of the exponents of powers correspond to the multiplication and division of the numbers whose power they indicate; and this may be considered as one step towards the discovery of logarithms: but in expressing the exponents of the higher powers of quantities, he combines those of the lower powers by multiplication instead of addition: this last method was that of Diophantus. Thus, in order to denote the sixth power of any quantity, he uses terms indicating the square of the cube, instead of terms expressing the sum of two third powers.

His method of resolving quadratic equations is by completing the square, as is done at present.

He treats at some length of what are called triangular numbers, that is, of adjacent columns of numbers constituting various progressions: thus the numbers in the first column may form an arithmetical progression beginning with 1, and having unity for the common difference; the second column may begin with 3, and the successive differences of the numbers may be be 3, 4, 5, &c.; the third column may begin with 10, and the successive differences may be 10, 15, 20, &c., and so on, the head of each column being opposite to the like number in the adjacent column preceding it. He explains the use of the table in discovering the coefficients of the several terms in any powers of a binomial quantity, and in extracting the roots of numbers; and it may be observed that such tables have since been made to serve several other useful purposes in mathematics. Stifel wrote also a treatise on the calendar, and a tract on 'Magic Squares. Like many other learned men of that century, he appears to have spent much time in studying the 'Apocalypse,' and he is said to have predicted that the end of the world would take place in the year 1553. One of his countrymen, also a mathematician, had previously assigned for the time of that event the year 1524; and in Britain, the celebrated Napier found out that it would occur between the years 1688 and 1700. Stifel died at Jena, in 1567. STIGAND, a Saxon prelate, in great favour with Edward the Confessor, who made him bishop of Elmham, or more properly of the East Angles, the seat of which bishopric is now at Norwich. This was in 1043. Four years after he was translated to Winchester; and in 1052 the Archbishop of Canterbury, Robert "Gemeticensis," being driven into exile, but not formally deposed, Stigand was made archbishop. This was considered an intrusion and irregularity; but the Ecandal was the greater, inasmuch as Stigand retained his bishopric of Winchester, holding at the same time both those high dignities. He is charged, in consequence of this, with having been inordinately avaricious and ambitious; but this defence has been made for him, that his hold was firmer on the bishopric of Winchester than on the archbishopric, from which he might have been removed had Robert returned. It is said to have been by a stratagem, of which he was the contriver, that the people of Kent obtained from the Conqueror a ratification of some of their ancient customs. The Conqueror disliked him; refused to allow him to place the crown on his head; and forced him in 1067 to accompany him when he returned to Normandy. Finally, the king prevailed upon the pope to send three cardinals to England to inquire into the conduct of Stigand; and several things being proved against him, he was deprived of his dignities and degraded from the clerical order. He was also condemned to perpetual imprisonment; but soon died, being, as is said, starved to death, either by the cruelty of others or by his own voluntary act. He died at Winchester, and was buried there. Lanfranc succeeded him. STIGLMAYER, JOHANN BAPTIST, the distinguished director of the Royal Bronze-foundry of Munich, was born October 18, 1791, at Fürstenfeldbruck, a small market-town near Munich, where his father carried on the business of a blacksmith. At Fürstenfeldbruck is an old convent founded by Ludwig the Strong, of Bavaria, in atonement for the hasty execution of his innocent wife Mary of Brabant, in 1250. This convent, which had undergone various changes, and had been at various times extensively decorated, was the school and academy of the bare-footed blacksmith's son, though in his time it was a military stable for foals (Militär-fohlenhof). It contained stucco decorations by E. Asam, frescoes by Appiani, statues by Roman Boos, and other works of the last century. The woodcuts of a book on natural history, which, with a catechism and prayer-book, constituted the whole library of his father, and the decorations of the convent were diligently copied by Stiglmayer, who, after many untiring visits (he was obliged to go daily for milk), at length ventured to introduce himself to the superintendent of the establishment, Herr Pfeiffer, who he had heard was not only himself a draftsman, but possessed also a collection of prints. Pfeiffer admired the boy's energy, and gave him some regular elementary instruction in design. After this he was placed by his parents with a goldsmith at Munich, of the name of Streis-1, and he attended in the meanwhile the holiday school (Feiertagsschule), in which he obtained the first prize for industry and good conduct, amounting to 100 florins (8 guineas), by which he attracted the notice of M. Leprieur, the director of the Bavarian mint, who from this time took much notice of Stiglmayer, procured him admission into the academy in 1810, and became in a manner his patron. From the date of his admission into the academy, he pursued the regular course of study requisite for a statuary and sculptor, and at the same time practised seal and medal engraving. He was very successful in 1814 in a medal with Von Langer, the director of the Academy, on one side, and Moses making the water flow from the rock on the other, for which he was appointed one of the engravers of the mint, and he was sent in 1819, at the king's expense, to Italy to complete his studies.

It was in Rome that Stiglmayer's patron, Ludwig, the late King of Bavaria (then crown prince), first became cognisant of his high abilities, and appears himself to have directed Stiglmayer's attention principally to metal-founding, in preparation for his own great undertakings already projected by him. In reference to this future occupation

Stiglmayer repaired to Naples, to witness the casting of the bronze colossal equestrian statue of Charles III., to be directed by Francesco Righetti and his son Luigi, from the model by Canova; the Italian sculptor's reserve and jealousy however rendered Stiglmayer's journey in vain as regarded its principal object; he did not allow him to see the casting. But in another respect he was fully recompensed; after considerable trouble he obtained permission to erect a smelting-oven in his cellar, and having procured the assistance of Beccali, an experienced founder, then to be found in few even of the principal cities of Europe, he undertook the casting of several works himself. The first wholly failed, but the second, a cast from Thorwaldsen's bust of Ludwig I., then crown prince, was completely successful, so much so, that the journeyman, Pasquali, in his ecstasy kissed the lips of the bust before they were cool, and seriously burnt his own. After casting a few other works, and thus perfecting his practical acquaintance with the art, he left Naples for Germany, but on his road he had the misfortune to fall in with some banditti who robbed him even of his sketch-books. He returned to Munich in 1822, but was at this time employed chiefly in his capacity as engraver for the mint, and on some unimportant works of sculpture for the new Sculpture Gallery or Glyptothek then in progress. To the medals of this time belong that in commemoration of the marriage of the Queen of Prussia, for the minister Von Zentner, and the historical medal of the royal family of Bavaria. Among his busts were those of King Maximilian I. and the Queen Theresa, Count Dörring, the ministers Baron Von Zentner and Lerchenfeld, Bishop Streber, and others.

In 1824 he commenced preparations for his great series of metal castings, and from this time he was exclusively employed in founding the numerous monumental works which have been executed for Ludwig I., king of Bavaria, some of which are the most extensive castings of modern times. In order to be as well prepared as possible for his arduous tasks previous to casting any great monument, he visited Berlin in 1824, to witness the casting of Rauch's statue of Blücher, by Reisinger, who showed him everything in his power. Stiglmayer's great activity commenced with the reign of Ludwig I., in 1826, in the foundry established and afterwards much enlarged by the king, expressly for his own numerous undertakings in that important branch of art; and he left many, and the most considerable, still unfinished, at his death. He was created in 1839 Knight of the Bavarian order of St. Michael.

The following is a brief summary of his labours: From his own designs-the monument to the Brazilian children Juri and Isabella, and the reclining figure of the Fräulein Von Mannlich, in the cemetery at Munich; the monument of Maximilian I., in Bad Kreuth; and the monument of the parting of Otto, king of Greece, from his mother Theresa, queen of Bavaria, at Aibling: after Schwanthalerthe twelve colossal fire-gilded statues of the ancestors of the King of Bavaria, ten feet high, set up in the new throne-room of the palace of Munich; the statue of General Bekkers for his monument in Munich; the colossal monumental figures of Jean Paul in Bayreuth, Mozart in Salzburg, the Margrave Frederic of Brandenburg in Erlangen, and the Grand-Duke Ludwig of Darmstadt; and the gilt bronze pieces of tableservice, with designs from the Niebelungen and Amelungen, for the crown-prince of Bavaria : after Thorwaldsen-the statue of Schiller at Stuttgardt, and the colossal equestrian statue of the elector Maximilian I. of Bavaria, at Munich: and after Rauch-the monument of King Maximilian I. of Bavaria, before the theatre at Munich. He executed also the following architectural casts from models made in the foundry, chiefly from the designs of Von Klenze; the obelisk, 100 Bavarian feet high, in commemoration of the 30,000 Bavarians who fell in the Russian campaign of Napoleon in 1812; the bronze gates of the Glyp tothek and the Walhalla; the great constitutional column at Gaibach; the interior pediments of the Walhalla, with the northern deities; the gilded candelabra in the new throne room in Munich; the monument to the brave Oberländer, who fell at Sendling, in the cemetery at Munich; and the tomb of King Maximilian in the royal vaults (Fürstengruft) at Munich, after a design by the architect Ziebland. Besides the above works, which are completed, are the following important monuments which were in progress at Stiglmayer's death-The colossal statue of Göthe, for Frankfurt, after the model by Schwanthaler; and from the model of the same sculptor, the enormous colossal figure of Bavaria, the largest statue in the world, being nearly sixty feet high, to be placed before the Bavarian temple of Fame, or Ruhmeshalle, which was inaugurated October 8, 1850 [SCHWANTHALER]; also, by Schwanthaler, the monument of the late Grand-Duke of Baden, with a pedestal and four allegoric figures of the four circles of the dukedom; and the statues of Marshals Tilly and Wrede, for the new marshals' Loggia or Feldherrnhalle at Munich; and casts from Tenerani's models of the statues of Ferdinand, king of Naples, for Naples, and of Bolivar, for Bolivia, in South America.

Stiglmayer died March 2, 1844, on the day on which the statue of Göthe was cast by his nephew and assistant Ferdinand Miller, who succeeded him as director of the foundry. Stiglmayer had suffered from illness two years previous to his death, and many supposed it was owing to the unhealthy system of gilding by fire; but he died of cancer in the stomach, which Breslau, the king's physician, had pre viously declared to be the cause of his illness.

(Kunstblatt, 1844; Soeltl, Bildende Kunst in München.)

STILICHO, FLAVIUS, was of Vandal origin, and his father had been a military officer in the reign of Valens. Concerning his early life and youth we know nothing beyond the vague eulogies of Claudian ('De Laud. Stilich.,' i. 42, &c.). According to the poet's account he distinguished himself in early life in a manner which announced his future greatness. He was of an unusually tall stature, and his appearance commanded respect. When he had scarcely arrived at the age of manhood, he was sent by the Emperor Theodosius to negociate a treaty with Persia. His discharged his duties as ambassador, and maintained the dignity of the Roman empire; and after his return the emperor rewarded him with the hand of Serena, his niece, whom he had adopted as his daughter. (Claud., 'Laus Seren., De Laud. Stilich.,' i. 71, &c.) Stilicho was raised from one high office to another, until at last he became master-general of all the cavalry and infantry of the Western empire. In all his military undertakings he set a noble example of honesty, integrity, and valour, combined with wisdom. Even his enemies owned that he was inaccessible to bribes. The distinctions which were conferred upon him excited the envy and hatred of Rufinus, to whom Theodosius had entrusted the administration of the East, and Stilicho would perhaps have fallen a victim to his intrigues, if Serena had not protected her husband at the court while he was at the head of the armies of Rome.

In the year A.D. 393, when Theodosius made war upon Eugenius, who with an army of Franks and Alemanni occupied the passes in the Alps between Pannonia and Italy, he placed Stilicho and Timasius at the head of the Roman forces. Eugenius was defeated and slain in the year following in a battle near Aquileia. (Oros., vii. 35; Gregor. Turon., ii. 9.) Before his death Theodosius divided the empire between his two sons, Arcadius and Honorius, the former of whom, then eighteen years old, was to govern over the East under the guidance of Rufinus; and the latter, only eleven years old, over the West, under the guardianship of Stilicho. According to the flattering account of Claudian, the emperor entrusted to Stilicho alone the care of his two sons and of the empire. (Zosim., v. 1.) Young Honorius trifled away his time in the palace of Milan, and Stilicho was in reality the sovereign of the Western empire. Stilicho has been blamed for having neglected the education of Honorius, but there is not the slightest evidence of any talent or intellectual capacity in the prince. After the death of Theodosius, Stilicho hastened through Rhætia and down the Rhine, inspected the country and the garrisons, and renewed the treaties with the Alemanni and Franks. With the exception of Count Gildo in Africa, who even during the last years of the reign of Theodosius had endeavoured to make himself independent in his province, the whole of the Western world acquiesced in Stilicho's authority. Rufinus was the enemy from whom Stilicho had to fear most. Great numbers of the troops who had been employed in the war against Eugenius, were still in Italy, and Rufinus, anxious that they should be withdrawn from that country, is said to have invited Alaric, king of the Visigoths, to invade Thrace and Moesia, which would oblige Stilicho to send these troops to the East. Stilicho appears to have entertained the design of uniting the two empires again, and he determined to lead the troops to Constantinople himself. But Rufinus, alarmed at the approach of his rival at the head of an army, induced the Emperor Arcadius to declare that Stilicho should be considered an enemy of the empire if he advanced any further. Stilicho retired, but secretly he determined to revenge himself upon Rufinus. His soldiers were attached to him, and he could place full confidence in them; he left the command to Gaina, a Gothic prince, and at the same time gave him instructions to seize Rufinus, and to put him to death. The soldiers were easily persuaded to lend their assistance in the execution of this design. When Gaina and his army had reached Constantinople, and Rufinus with the emperor was reviewing the troops, he was surrounded by the soldiers and cut down on the spot (November 395). The people of Constantinople rejoiced at their deliverance from the oppressor. Stilicho thus got rid of his mortal enemy at Constantinople, but a new one sprang up in his place. Eutropius, a eunuch, gained the unlimited confidence of Arcadius, and Gaina, the faithless barbarian, also deserted the cause of Stilicho, and was rewarded for it with a high office in the Eastern empire. These two new enemies of Stilicho, as long as they were united, left no means untried to deprive their adversary of the confidence of Honorius, and of the attachment of the subjects of the Western empire. His life was repeatedly endangered by assassins, and a decree was issued by the senate of Constantinople, by which he was declared an enemy of the empire. Stilicho was wise and moderate enough not to involve the two empires in a civil war on this account.

Alaric, who had in the meanwhile invaded, ravaged, and plundered Greece, had penetrated as far as Peloponnesus in 396. Stilicho went with a fleet to Peloponnesus; but Alaric escaped with his Goths, was received by Arcadius into the service of the East, and made commander of all the forces of Illyricum, as far as it belonged to the Eastern empire. (Zosim., v. 7; Claudian, 'De Bell. Get.') On his return to Italy, Stilicho began, in 397, his preparations for the war against Gildo in Africa. Thinking that his presence was necessary in Italy, partly to protect the northern and eastern frontiers, and partly to provide Italy with supplies of corn, he entrusted the command to Gildo's own brother Mascezil, who was the bitterest enemy of his brother. The army of Mascezil amounted to about 5000 men, but they were mostly

veterans who had served under Eugenius. Gildo had assembled a numerous undisciplined body to repel the attack, but it was routed, and Mascezil gained an almost bloodless victory. Gildo was seized, and sentenced to death, with a great number of his adherents. (Oros., vii. 36; Claudian, 'De Bell. Gildonico.) This important campaign was completed in one winter. Soon after his return to Milan, Mascezil, while riding by the side of Stilicho, was thrown from his horse into the river and drowned, and the enemies of Stilicho spread the report that by a peculiar look he had prevented the attendants from saving the unfortunate prince. According to other accounts, Mascezil was put to death for having violated the sacred character of a church. Soon after these events Honorius was married to Maria, the daughter of Stilicho and Serena. (Claudian, 'De Nupt. Honor. et Mariæ.') Alaric had availed himself of his position in Illyricum to strengthen himself, and secretly matured his designs, while externally he kept up a good understanding with the courts of the East and of the West. At length, in 400, he set out on his march against Italy. The immediate cause of this invasion is not known. When Alaric advanced towards Aquileia, all Italy was in consternation, and the counsellors of Honorius advised him to seek a refuge in some foreign land. Stilicho alone did not share their despair. But the difficulty was to raise an army, as most of the troops were engaged in Rhætia. Stilicho hastened thither, and was soon enabled to send the troops from Rhætia to Italy. He also drew reinforcements from Gaul and other parts of the empire, and engaged some of the nations with whom he made peace to assist Honorius. Alaric appears to have been checked in his progress by the siege of Aquileia, and to have withdrawn towards the Danube to reinforce himself; but before Stilicho returned from his expedition, in which he assembled his forces, Alaric, in 402, advanced towards the imperial residence of Milan. Honorius fled to Asta in Liguria, where he was besieged by the Goths, and would have fallen into their hands if Stilicho had not arrived at the critical moment with his army. He forced his way through the camp of the enemy, and saved his sovereign. The Goths withdrew, and pitched their camp near Polentia, and while they were engaged here in celebrating the feast of Easter, Stilicho attacked them unexpectedly in their camp. A bloody struggle ensued, in which the barbarians were defeated (403). The whole camp of Alaric, and even his wife, fell into the hands of the Romans. Claudian (De Bell. Get.') compares this victory with that of Marius over the Cimbri, although from other sources we learn that Stilicho gained the victory with great loss, while some authors even state that he was defeated. These latter accounts are the more probable, as Alaric marched from Polentia towards the Apennines to attack Etruria and Rome. This induced Stilicho, according to Claudian, to enter into negociations for peace with Alaric, as he was unwilling to stake the existence of the empire on another battle. A peace was concluded, and Alaric retreated across the river Po. Stilicho however, mistrusting the Goth, sent a small corps of observation after him, and appears to have carried on a secret correspondence with some of the Gothic chiefs in Alaric's army, so that he was informed of all that was going on. Alaric intended on his march to make himself master of Verona, but when he approached this city he found himself suddenly surrounded by the imperial troops whom Stilicho had sent thither. Alaric is said to have lost here as many of his men as at Polentia, and he himself was nearly made a prisoner. Stilicho concluded a fresh treaty with him, and allowed him to depart from Italy.

After the delivery of Italy, Honorius and Stilicho solemnised a triumph at Rome with great pomp and splendid games. The hostile machinations against Stilicho were still going on at the court of Constantinople, and he saw no better way to secure himself against them than by entering into an alliance with Alaric and engaging Honorius in a war with his brother. Stilicho intended to acquire for his sovereign possession of the eastern part of Illyricum, and Alaric was to assist him in carrying out this design, on condition that he should receive certain subsidies. (Zosim., v. 26.) The execution of these plans was interrupted, in 405, by the invasion of Radagaisus, who entered Italy at the head of several Germanic tribes, which formed an army of above 200,000 men. The safety of Italy rested again in the sword and the wisdom of Stilicho. He again drew all the military forces from the provinces to Italy, and reinforced their numbers by fresh levies. But with all his exertions he could not raise more than 40,000 men, exclusive of some foreign auxiliaries consisting of Huns under Uldin and Goths under Sarus. Radagaisus and his hordes crossed the Po and the Apennines, and marched into Etruria. Stilicho assembled his forces in the neighbourhood of Pavia. Many cities were pillaged and destroyed by the barbarians, but the siege of Florence checked their progress towards Rome. At the moment when Florence was on the point of being reduced, Stilicho surrounded the barbarians, who were encamped on the heights of Fæsulæ, with strong lines of circumvallation, while plentiful supplies were introduced into Florence. The enemy was finally reduced by famine, thirst, and disease. Radagaisus fell into the hands of Stilicho, and was put to death, and his barbarians were sold as slaves. (Oros., vii. 37; Zosim., v. 26; Augustin., 'Serm.,' cv. 10; 'De Civit. Dei,' v. 23; Marcellin. 'ad A.,' 406.)

The province of Gaul, from which Stilicho had been obliged to withdraw the garrisons, was invaded and ravaged, about the end of

40 6 and the beginning of 407, by Vandals, Alani, Suevi, Burgundians, and other Germanic tribes. In Gaul these barbarians were opposed by Constantine, a man who had shortly before been raised from the condition of a common soldier to the rank of emperor by the soldiers in Britain, and now made himself master of Gaul and Spain by entering into a league with some of the barbarians. Stilicho indeed sent Sarus, the Goth, to Gaul, but without success, and Honorius was for a time obliged to leave the rebel in the undisturbed possession of his conquest. Alaric in the mean time became impatient, and having advanced with his army as far as Emona on the frontiers of Italy, he sent ambassadors to Ravenna to demand the promised subsidies. When the ambassadors arrived, Stilicho left them at Ravenna and went to Rome, where Honorius was then staying. Stilicho, who was convinced that it was dangerous to make such a formidable neighbour as Alaric an enemy, was willing to continue the peace with him, and to grant his requests. He laid the matter before the Roman senate, which, with a spirit not unworthy of ancient Rome, declared that the demands of the Goths should not be complied with, and that destruction would be preferable to such disgrace. The influence however of Stilicho and his party, whose object only was to preserve Italy from new devastations at a moment when Gaul was in the hands of a rebel and of barbarians who might easily be induced to march southward, was so great, that nearly all the senators at length were obliged to give way, and 4000 pounds of gold were granted to Alaric under the name of a subsidy. (Zosim., v. 29.) The desire of Stilicho to maintain peace with Alaric was interpreted by his enemies as a treacherous partiality for the enemy of the empire, and all the calamities under which Italy had been suffering were imputed to Stilicho. Even Honorius now began to fear and suspect his minister; and this feeling was fostered by a cunning hypocrite of the name of Olympius, whom Stilicho himself had introduced to the court, and who had gained the confidence of the emperor.

In May 408, Arcadius died, leaving a son, Theodosius, eight years old. Honorius proposed a journey to the East to regulate the administration. Stilicho represented to him the difficulties and dangers of such an undertaking, and in consequence it was determined that Stilicho should go to Constantinople. An army, which was to march against Constantine, was assembled near Pavia, and Honorius went thither to inspect it, while Stilicho was making preparations at Bologna for his departure. The eunuch Olympius represented to the emperor that Stilicho was conspiring with Alaric, that he intended with his assistance to raise his son Eucherius to the throne, and that it formed part of their design to restore paganism in the empire. (Olympiodorus, 'ap. Phot. Cod.,' 80.) He also contrived to influence the soldiers at Pavia, who revolted, and on a given signal killed several of their principal officers, who were represented to them as the friends of Stilicho. As soon as the intelligence of the revolt at Pavia had arrived, Stilicho's friends advised him to march against his enemies; but he hesitated till it was too late. His friends, for the most part barbarians, left him with indignation at his want of resolution. At midnight, Sarus, the faithless Goth, made an attack upon Stilicho's tent, and cut down his guards. Stilicho escaped to Ravenna, and took refuge in a church. He was treacherously induced to come out, and as soon as he had left the threshold he was put to death by Count Heraclian, who was waiting for him with a band of soldiers, on the 23rd of August, 408. His family and his friends were persecuted, and many of them put to death. (Zosim., v. 34.)

The history of Stilicho has come down to us in a manner which scarcely enables us to choose a due medium between the extravagant praise of Claudian and the charges of his enemies, or of such writers as were obliged to join in the general clamour that was raised against him after his fall.

(Mascow, History of the Antient Germans, vol. i., book viii., sect. 2, 19, English translation; Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chap. 29 and 30; C. F. Schultz, Flavius Stilicho, cin Wallenstein der Vorwelt, ein Beitrag zum letzten Theile der Röm. Geschichte; &c.

STILL, JOHN, the son of William Still, of Grantham, in Lincolnshire, was born in 1543, and became a student of Christ College, Cambridge, where he took his degree as Master of Arts. In 1570 he was appointed Lady Margaret's Professor in the University: he afterwards held livings in Suffolk and Yorkshire, and was successively Master of St. John's and Trinity Colleges. In 1588 he was chosen prolocutor of the Convocation; and in 1592, he was raised to the bishopric of Bath and Wells, which he held till his death in 1607. Bishop Still is said by Fuller to have been "one of a venerable presence, no less famous for a preacher than a disputant." He left a large fortune, chiefly derived from lead mines discovered in the Mendip Hills during his possession of the see. The historians of the drama concur in believing him to have been, in his youth, the author of a coarse but humorous play, which, till the discovery of 'Ralph Royster Doyster,' was held to be the earliest extant work known in England by the name of a comedy. It is called, 'A ryght pithy, pleasaunt, and merie Comedie, intytuled, Gammer Gurton's Nedle; played on stage not long ago, in Christe's Colledge in Cambridge. Made by Mr. S., Master of Art, 1575. Gammer Gurton's Needle' is in Hawkins's Origin of the English Drama,' and in the second volume of Dodsley's 'Old Playз.'

STILLING, JUNG JOHANN HEINRICH, a celebrated German Pietist, was born at Gründ, in Westphalia, in 1740. His father Wilhelm Jung was a charcoal-burner, to which trade he was also destined, but circumstances favouring his becoming a tailor, he chose that business, though he soon relinquished it for a situation as teacher at a school. Dissatisfied with this, he returned to tailoring, and continued it till several of the gentry befriended him, and took him as private tutor to their children. He contrived to save a little money, which enabled him to pursue his studies, and went in consequence to Strassburg, and studied medicine there. It was there he became acquainted with Göthe, who took a great liking to him, and has sketched his character with great fondness in several passages of the 'Dichtung und Wahrheit' (books ix. and x.). It was at Göthe's suggestion that he wrote his interesting autobiography ("Lebensgeschichte'), to whom he had often related it. Stilling practised as physician for some time in Eberfeld, and in 1778 was appointed professor at the Kameralschule of Lautern, and in 1787 at that of Marburg, and in 1803 at that of Heidelberg. He died in Karlsruhe, 1817.

As a physician, Stilling's great talent was in diseases of the eye, and he is said to have restored upwards of 2000 persons to better sight. As a writer, he was very popular, and the sect of Pietists in Germany (somewhat similar to our Methodists) look up to him with great affection. "The great element of his character was an invincible and intense faith in God and an immediate providence, ever at hand in the time of trouble, and which momently preserved man from evil." The most celebrated of all his works is the 'Theorie der Geisterkunde,' which, as well as his autobiography, has been translated into English by Mr. Jackson. A complete edition of his works was published at Leipzig, in 18 vols. 8vo, in 1835, edited by Dr. J. Grollmann.

(Stilling's Lebensgeschichte; Göthe's Dicht. und Wahrheit; Conversations Lexicon.)

STILLINGFLEET, BENJAMIN, grandson of Dr. Stillingfleet, bishop of Worcester, was born in 1702. His father, originally a physician, and one of the professors at Gresham College, afterwards entered into holy orders, and held the livings of Wood Norton and Swanton, in Norfolk, at the time of his death in 1708. His widow was left with four children in very straitened circumstances, but Benjamin was so fortunate as to obtain a good education at Norwich grammar-school, where he made considerable proficiency. In April 1720, he entered as subsizar at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took the degree of B.A. in 1723. Soon aftewards he quitted the University, and became tutor to the son of Mr. Wyndham of Felbrig, in whose family he remained till 1726, when he became a candidate for a vacant fellowship in his own college, but was not successful, owing, as he believed, to the opposition of Dr. Bentley. After this disappointment he spent many years at Felbrig, and in 1737 accompanied the son of Mr. Wyndham to the Continent. On his return to England the father of his old pupil settled on him an annuity of 100%., on which sum and the produce of his literary labours he subsisted for three years. The friendship of Mr. Price, whose acquaintance he had made when at Rome, now enabled him to take up his abode in a small cottage near that gentleman's seat at Foxley, in Hertfordshire. An indifferent state of health first led him to pay attention to natural history, which he afterwards cultivated with great success. In 1759 he published a collection of 'Miscellaneous Tracts on Natural History,' which consisted of translations from the writings of Linnæus and his pupils, calculated to develope the principles of that great botanist. Mr. Stillingfleet's preface to this work did much towards rendering the Linnæan system popular in this country, and constitutes his chief scientific merit.

'A Treatise on the Principles and Power of Harmony,' published in 1771, which is an abridgement of Tartini's Trattato di Musica,' was the only other work which appeared during his life; but he left at his death six volumes in manuscript, of a collection towards a 'General History of Husbandry,' of which an analysis is given in his biography by Mr. Coxe. Mr. Stilling fleet died in London, on December 15, 1771, leaving behind him, besides his scientific reputation, the character of an excellent scholar, an elegant poet and musician, and a most amiable and estimable man.

For further information concerning him the reader may consult Mr. Coxe's very interesting work, The Literary Life and Select Works of Benjamin Stillingfleet,' London, 1811.

STILLINGFLEET, EDWARD, son of Samuel Stillingfleet, was born at Cranbourn, in Dorset, on the 17th of April 1635. He was educated at the grammar-schools of Cranbourn and Ringwood, and at St. John's, Cambridge. He entered the college in 1648, and obtained a fellowship in 1653. After taking his degree of M.A. he was private tutor successively in the families of Sir Roger Burgoin, at Wroxhall, in Warwickshire, and of the Hon. Francis Pierrepoint, of Nottingham. Here he began his 'Irenicum.' In 1657 he was presented to the rectory of Sutton by Sir R. Burgoin.

Stillingfleet commenced his public life as the advocate of moderate, almost of latitudinarian opinions on ecclesiastical affairs. In the year 1659 he published his first work, which was entitled 'Irenicum, or the Divine Right of particular Forms of Church Government examined.' A second edition appeared in 1662, with an appendix on the Power of

Excommunication. This work which was intended to prove that no particular form of church government is appointed in the New Testament, was thought by the high church party to savour of Presbyterianism; and in deference to them, according to Bishop Burnet, Stillingfleet afterwards retracted it. Stillingfleet himself says, that "there are many things in it which, if he were to write again, he would not say; some which show his youth and want of due consideration; others which he yielded too far, in hopes of gaining the dissenting parties to the Church of England." (Stillingfleet's 'Life,' p. 12.) The work on which his reputation mainly rests is his 'Origines Sacræ, or Rational Account of the Christian Faith as to the Truth and Divine Authority of the Scriptures,' which was published in 1662. He meant to have continued it, but died before he could do so. The additions to the folio edition, published after his death are of little value. This work is still one of the most valuable defences of the truth of the Scriptures, though it is more adapted to the theologian than to the general reader.

Stilling fleet was a fierce and indefatigable polemic. During the greater part of his life, he had his hands full of controversy, with the Romanists on the one side, and the Nonconformists on the other. In 1664 he engaged, at the request of Dr. Henchman, bishop of London, in the defence of the views maintained by Laud in his conference with Fisher the Jesuit. A work having been published on this subject in Paris, entitled 'Labyrinthus Cantuariensis,' with the design of proving the Church of England to be schismatical in her separation from Rome, Stillingfleet defended the Church of England, and retorted upon Rome the charge of schism in 'A rational Account of the Grounds of the Protestant Religion,' which was received with great favour by Protestants. In 1665 he was presented by the Earl of Southampton to the rectory of St. Andrew's, Holborn, having been already appointed preacher at the Rolls chapel. This preferment was speedily followed by his appointment as lecturer to the Temple, and also as chaplain in ordinary to Charles II. In 1668 he took the degree of D.D., and was nominated by Charles, in 1670, canon residentiary of St. Paul's, and in 1678 dean of the same cathedral. In the meantime he published his 'Discourse concerning the Idolatry practised in the Church of Rome, and the Hazard of Salvation in its Communion,' 1671; and other tracts against the Roman Catholics, and also against the Socinians, as well as 'A Letter of Resolution to a Person unsatisfied about the Truth and Authority of the Scriptures.' In 1680 he plunged into a new controversy, by preaching before the lord mayor a sermon, on Philipp. iii., 16, which he afterwards published, entitled "The Mischief of Separation.' This sermon consisted of a violent attack on the Nonconformists, which was little expected from the author of the 'Irenicum.' Mr. Orme justly observes that "the rector of Sutton, who wrote the 'Irenicum' when the Church of England was but a sect among other sects, was a very different person from the dean of St. Paul's exposing the unreasonableness of separation from an apostolic church in all its glory. The one publication breathes a spirit of moderation, and uses the language of entreaty; the other is stern, severe, and uncompromising." (Orme's 'Life of Baxter,' p. 632.) In this discourse Stillingfleet maintains the curious position that "though the really conscientious Nonconformist is justified in not worshipping after the prescribed forms of the Church of England, or rather, would be criminal if he did so, yet he is not less criminal in setting up a separate assembly." The sermon was replied to by Owen, Baxter, Howe, and other eminent Nonconformists. Howe directed his attention chiefly to the above position, and added some remarks concerning Stillingfleet himself, giving him such full credit for piety, purity of motive, and general moderation, that the dean confessed "that Howe had discoursed gravely and piously, more like a gentleman than a divine." (Rogers's Life of Howe,' pp. 251-266.) Stillingfleet replied to his opponents in a large quarto volume, entitled 'The Unreasonableness of Separation,' 1681, in which he traces the history of Nonconformity; and Baxter rejoined in 'A second true Defence of the mere Nonconformists, against the untrue Accusations, Reasonings, and History of Dr. Edward Stillingfleet,' 1681, to which the dean made no reply, though several writers carried on his side of the argument. A full account of this controversy is given by Mr. Orme in his Lives of Owen and Baxter.'

In 1685 Stillingfleet published his 'Origines Britannicae, or Antiquities of the British Churches,' which gives a full account of the early ecclesiastical history of Britain, from the first introduction of Christianity to the conversion of the Saxons. He rejects many of the traditions respecting the British churches, but is disposed to believe in the alleged visit of Paul to Britain.

When James II. revived the court of ecclesiastical commission, Stillingfleet refused to be a member of it; and after the Revolution he published 'A Discourse concerning the Illegality of the Ecclesiastical Commission, in answer to the Vindication and Defence of it,' 1689. Under Charles and James he was prolocutor of the convocation. After the revolution of 1688, Stilling fleet's services to the Protestant cause were rewarded with the bishopric of Worcester, to which he was consecrated in 1689. He immediately addressed himself, with his usual ardour, to correct the irregularities which had arisen in the diocese; he appeared with distinction in the House of Lords: and he still found leisure for polemics. In 'A Vindication of the Trinity, with an Answer

to the late Objections against it from Scripture, Antiquity, and Reason, he made some objections to Locke's definition of substance, and to his theory of ideas in general, which gave rise to a sharp contest between him and Locke.

Stillingfleet died of gout, at Westminster, March 27, 1699. His remains were interred in the cathedral of Worcester, where a monument was erected to him by his son, with a long and highly eulogistic Latin epitaph by Bentley, who was his chaplain.

The character of Bishop Stillingfleet has always commanded the praise even of his opponents, and perhaps many will find a more genuine expression of his worth in Howe's testimony than in Bentley's epitaph. His works prove his industry and learning. Besides the works noticed above, he wrote several theological pamphlets, and a very able defence of the jurisdiction of the bishops as peers in capital cases. His works were printed in 1710, in 6 vols. folio, and a volume of his miscellaneous works was published in 1735 by his son, the Rev. James Stillingfleet, canon of Worcester. Stillingfleet had collected a splendid library, which Dr. Marsh, archbishop of Armagh, purchased, in order to throw it open to the public in Dublin. The manuscripts were bought by the Earl of Oxford, and are now in the Bodleian library.

(Life of Dr. Edward Stillingfleet, late Lord Bishop of Worcester, &c., London, 1710, 1735.)

STILPO (ETIATwv), a native of Megara, was a philosopher of the Megarian school, who flourished about B.C. 300. Respecting his life we know very little. He appears to have enjoyed the highest estimation among his countrymen both as a man and a philosopher. Ptolemæus Soter, when he was at Megara, endeavoured to persuade him to come to Egypt, but Stilpo refused, and withdrew to Ægina until Ptolemæus had left Megara. When Demetrius Poliorcetes took Megara, he commanded his soldiers to spare the habitation of the philosopher, who, in his eyes, was the wisest of all the Greeks living. Cicero ('De Fato,' 5), apparently on good authority, states that Stilpo, who was naturally fond of wine and women, exercised such control over his passions, that no one ever saw in him any sign of indulgence in sensual pleasures.

As a philosopher, Stilpo, on the whole, followed the doctrines of the Megarian school, but he went further, and denied the objective reality of the ideas of species and genera. He asserted that the character of a philosopher consisted in perfect freedom from passions; and in this theory he was followed by his disciple Zeno, the founder of the Stoic school of philosophy. Diogenes Laertius, in his account of Stilpo (ii., c. 12), states that he wrote nine dialogues, which he characterises by the epithet "frigid" (yvxpoí); no part of them is now extant.

(G. L. Spalding, Vindicia Philosophorum Megaricorum, p. 20, &c.; Ritter and Preller, Hist. Philos., p. 181, &c.)

STIRLING, JAMES, an English mathematician of considerable eminence, but of whom, except the works which he published, scarcely any thing is known. He must have been born near the end of the 17th century, and he was a student in the University of Oxford; in 1726 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and his death must have taken place subsequently to the year 1764.

Mr. Stirling's first work is entitled 'Linea Tertii Ordinis Newtonianæ, sive,' &c.: this work, which was published at Oxford, in 8vo, in 1717, contains a commentary on Newton's tract on the subject of lines of the third order. In this tract it is shown that all such lines may be expressed by four different equations, of the third degree, between two variable quantities x and y; and that of these equations one, which consists of terms involving the three first powers of c and the two first powers of y, comprehends sixty-five species of hyperbolic curves. Stirling discovered that the same equation contained two additional species, and the Abbé De Gua (Usage de l'Analyse de Descartes') subsequently detected in it four others which had been overlooked by Stirling, probably because he directed his researches almost entirely in the steps of his author. The English mathematician has the honour of being the first who observed, if the value of y in the given equation be found in an infinite series of terms containing descending powers of x, that on taking one term only of such series for the value of y, there is obtained an equation of the first degree, which determines the position of a rectilinear asymptote to the curve: that on taking two terms, there is obtained an equation of a curve, which may be considered as an asymptote to the original curve, and which approaches nearer to it than the rectilinear asymptote; and so on. It may be observed however that the division of curve lines into classes and species is arbitrary; Newton, Euler, and Cramer having made the number of curves of the same order very different: it is also now of small importance, since when the equation of any curve is given, the rules of analysis enable the mathematician to determine immediately its tangents, asymptotes, normals, and 'singular' points. The work which contributed most to Stirling's reputation is his Methodus Differentialis, sive Tractatus de Summatione et Interpolatione Serierum Infinitarum:' this work was published in London, in 4to, in 1730; and in the first part of it there are investigated general formulæ, expressing the sums of given series by means of a factor, by which each term in a series being multiplied, the product is equal to the next following term: the factor itself is in the form of a series consisting of terms arranged according to the ascending or descending