subterraneous fires, and such fires are kindled by by intrepid avarice; revenge embraces the mothe union and fermentation of iron and sulphur. ment, and selects the victim; and the earth often But their times and effects appear to lie beyond swallows the assassin or the ravisher in the conthe reach of human curiosity, and the philosopher summation of their crimes. Superstition involves will discreetly abstain from the prediction of earth- the present danger with invisible terrors; and if quakes, till he has counted the drops of water that the image of death may sometimes be subservient silently filtrate on the inflammable mineral, and to the virtue or repentance of individuals, an afmeasured the caverns which increase by resistance frighted people is more forcibly moved to expect the explosion of the imprisoned air. Without as- the end of the world, or to deprecate with servile signing the cause, history will distinguish the pe- homage the wrath of an avenging Deity.' In riods in which these calamitous events have been 1169, single shocks continued for four months; and rare or frequent, and will observe, that this fever in 1202 another earthquake destroyed many cities, of the earth raged with uncommon violence during filled up the valleys of Lebanon, and shattered the the reign of Justinian. Each year is marked by basaltic districts of Hauran, so that, according to the repetition of earthquakes, of such duration, that the expression then current, it was no longer posConstantinople has been shaken above forty days; sible to say, here stood this or that city. A dreadof such extent, that the shock has been communi- ful earthquake took place in 1759; the shocks concated to the whole surface of the globe, or at least tinued for six months. At the first shock the cities of the Roman empire. An impulsive or vibratory of Antioch, Balbec, Acre, Tripoli, &c. were laid motion was felt: enormous chasms were opened, in ruins, and 30,000 persons killed. The more rehuge and heavy bodies were discharged into the cent earthquake, of 1822, lasted still longer, and air, the sea alternately advanced and retreated be- committed dreadful ravages. On the 13th of Auyond its ordinary bounds, and a mountain was torn gust, in one horrible night, Aleppo, Antioch, Biha, from Libanus, and cast into the waves, where it Gesser, indeed every single village and cottage protected, as a mole, the new harbor of Botrys, in within the pashalic of Aleppo, was within ten or Phoenicia. The stroke that agitates an ant-hill, twelve seconds, completely destroyed, and conmay crush the insect myriads in the dust; yet, truth verted into a heap of rubbish: no less than 20,000 must extort a confession, that man has industriously people lost their lives, and many more were mutilabored for his own destruction. The institution lated; a very great number, considering the low of great cities, which include a nation within the population of these places. limits of a wall, almost realizes the wish of Cali- "Africa is very little known, and we are theregula, that the Roman people had but one neck. fore ignorant of any earthquakes in its interior, Two hundred and fifty thousand persons are said where they may occur as frequently as in other to have perished in the earthquake of Antioch, places. The southern extremity of this continent whose domestic multitudes were swelled by the is rarely visited by slight shocks, but they are more conflux of strangers to the festival of the Ascen- numerous in the north, where, in March, 1825, they sion. The loss of Berytus was of smaller account, did considerable damage to Algiers and Blida. On but of much greater value. That city, on the coast the contrary, America, particularly in the southern of Phoenicia, was illustrated by the study of the parts, is inferior to no part of the world for the civil law, which opened the surest road to wealth magnitude, number, and duration of its earthquakes. and dignity the schools of Berytus were filled We shall now mention a few of the greatest rewith the rising spirits of the age, and many a youth corded by naturalists. To these belong the earthwas lost in the earthquake who might have lived to quake of 1746, which, within five minutes, destroyed be the scourge or the guardian of his country. In the greater part of Lima; Callao was inundated; these disasters, the architect becomes the enemy and of 4000 persons, 200 only escaped. The of mankind. The hut of a savage, or the tent of destruction of New Andalusia, on the 21st of Octoan Arab, may be thrown down without injury to ber, 1766, was equally terrible. The shocks exthe inhabitants; and the Peruvians had reason to tended over Cumana, Caraccas, Maracaibo, the deride the folly of their Spanish conquerors, who shores of the Casanar, the Meta, the Orinoco, and with so much cost and labor erected their own Ventures; and the granite districts in the mission sepulchres. The rich marbles of a patrician are of Encaranada were also shaken by their violence. dashed on his own head; a whole people is buried An earthquake, in 1797, destroyed a great part of under the ruins of public and private edifices, and Peru. It proceeded from the volcano Tunguragua, the conflagration is kindled and propagated by the continued with slight shocks during the whole of innumerable fires which are necessary for the sub- February and March, and returned on the 15th of sistence and manufactures of a great city. Instead April, with increased violence. Many places were of the mutual sympathy which might comfort and filled up by the summits of mountains tumbling assist the distressed, they dreadfully experience the down; muddy water flowed from the volcano; and vices and passions which are released from the fear spreading over the country, became afterwards an of punishment: the tottering houses are pillaged indurated crust of clay. The entire number of overcharged state of the electric fluid. Andrew Bena affirms, that they are sudden explosions, caused by gas in the interior of the earth, which he believes would be found there inclosed in reservoirs of sulphur and bitumen. Beccaria, as is persons who perished on this occasion was 16,000. | quakes to the operation of central fire, was at first No earthquake could well be more destructive to attacked chiefly by Stukely, who, from the pheany place than that which destroyed the Caraccas nomena of two earthquakes observed at London on in 1812, and of which Humboldt has given an ex- the 8th February, and 8th of March, 1749, endeacellent description. The Caraccas was thought vored to prove that they were caused by a highly secure on account of its primitive mountains, although in 1641, 1703, and 1778, violent earthquakes were experienced, and a slighter shock in 1802. Humboldt, from actual inspection, had no doubt but this country, from being in a volcanic region, must be liable to such disasters. In December, known, endeavored to attribute to electricity every 1811, various shocks were felt; on the 12th of thing that had any probable affinity for it; hence March, 1812, the city of Caraccas was destroyed. he believed that an accumulation of it in the crust The sky was clear, and in Venezuela, there had of the earth produced concussions with the clouds, not been a drop of rain for five months: there was and then exhibited the appearance of earthquakes. no forewarning prognostic, for the first shock at Humboldt found it to be a prevailing opinion in seven minutes past four in the afternoon came on America that earthquakes are electrical phenomeunexpectedly, and set the bells a ringing. This na; but observes, that this must be excused by was immediately succeeded by a second shock, reason of the partiality entertained for Franklin. which caused a waving and rolling motion in The invention of the Voltaic pile, and the obserthe earth, then a subterraneous rumbling noise vation of its singular operations, induced many was heard, and there was a third shock, in which philosophers, at least those naturalists who were the motion was perpendicular, and sometimes roll- perfectly intimate with the nature of this remarkaing horizontally, with a violence which nothing ble apparatus, to consider the whole earth as a could withstand. The people, in place of flying column or pile of this description, or that it condirectly to the open fields, flocked in crowds to tains an apparatus of this description in its intethe churches, where arrangements had been made rior. These fancies, however, lead to nothing for a procession; and the multitudes assembled satisfactory. Where then can we seek for the there were buried beneath the ruins. Two churches 150 feet high, and supported by columns of from twelve to fifteen feet in diameter, fell in a mass of rubbish, and were for the most part ground into dust. The Caserne el Quartel vanished almost entirely, and a regiment of soldiers stationed there, and about to join the procession, disappeared at the same time along with it; a few individuals only to escape.' escaped; nine-tenths of the city were completely destroyed, and most of the houses that remained were rendered uninhabitable; the number of people killed was reckoned at nearly 10,000, without including those who perished afterwards from bruises and want of sustenance. The clouds of dust having fallen, were succeeded by a serene night, which formed a frightful contrast with the destruction on the earth, and with the dead bodies lying scattered among the ruins. The duration of each particular shock was reckoned by some 50 seconds, by others 1 minute 12 seconds. These shocks extended over the provinces of Venezuela, Varinas, Maracaibo, and into the mountains in the interior. La Guayra, Mayquatia, La Vega, St. Felipe and Merida, were almost entirely destroyed. In La Guayra and St. Felipe the number of persons "EAST INDIA COMPANY. A famous joint stock killed was about 5000. On the 5th of April, another association originally established to carry on the violent earthquake took place, during which enor-trade between this country and the East Indies, or mous fragments were detached from the mountains. rather with the countries to the eastward of the It was said that the mountain Silla lost from 350 Cape of Good Hope. It was constituted by royal to 360 feet of its height by sinking. charter in 1600, and continued, notwithstanding "Cause of Earthquakes.-The original hypothe-repeated efforts to open the trade, to enjoy the exsis, which attributed volcanic eruptions and earth-'clusive privileges originally conceded till 1688. cause or causes of earthquakes? The subject is entirely hypothetical, as we have no means of reaching the seat of these remarkable phenomena. The theory of the earthquake is the same as that of the volcano. The agitations may be produced by the motions of the liquid and gaseous matter at a great depth in the crust of the earth endeavoring BRANDE'S ENCYCLOPÆDIA. PART IV. We have already noticed other parts of this valuable and cheap work, now in process of publication, by the Harpers. It is published semimonthly at 25 cents the number; and that our readers may have a proper understanding as to the scope and tendency of the work, we promised to give from time to time, such extracts as our limits will admit of, and which will best serve so desirable a purpose. With this view we make the following extracts: VOL. IX-40 At that period the power of the crown to restrain | increase of trade with India, but that we should the freedom of trade without the sanction of par- draw from her an immense amount of surplus reveliament having been denied, a rival association ob-nue, or tribute. Perhaps it is not going too far to tained an act of parliament in its favor; but after say that these expectations have been entirely disa variety of negotiations, which it is unnecessary appointed. Great abuses existed in the governto specify, the two corporations were joined in 1702 ment of the Bengal provinces when conquered by under the name of 'The United Company of Mer-Clive; the servants of the East India Company chants trading to the East Indies;' an appellation making large fortunes by the oppression of the nawhich has been continued to the present day. In tives and the ruin of the country. But, notwith1708 the United Company was secured by parlia-standing the eradication of the abuses in question, ment in the exclusive privilege of trading to all the immense additions that have since been made places eastward of the Cape of Good Hope to the to our empire, and the oppressive taxes laid on the Straits of Magellan; and this privilege, with some natives, it is not very clear that England has hithmodifications, was confirmed and prolonged by suc-erto derived any direct revenue from India. The cessive acts of parliament down to 1814. By the distance of the country, and the totally dissimilar act 53 Geo. 3. c. 133., passed in 1813, the East language and customs of the people, are very great India Company's charter was renewed for twenty obstacles to our governing it with the economy neyears; but it then received some important modifi- cessary to make it yield any considerable amount cations, by which a restricted intercourse was per- of surplus revenue. The East India Company mitted to all British merchants with the whole of always contended, that the profits made by their the Company's Indian possessions; the monopoly monopoly of the China trade were necessary to of the trade between England and China being, enable them to conduct the government of India. however, retained, in the hands of the East India But, though there are strong grounds on which to Company. These concessions paved the way for impeach the accuracy of this statement, still it is the act of 1833, by which, though the Company's abundantly clear that the surplus revenue we have charter was prolonged till 1854, not only was the derived from India, supposing there has been any monopoly of the China trade abolished, but an end such, has been comparatively inconsiderable; and wholly put to the Company's original character of quite trifling, indeed, compared with our own antia commercial association. cipations, and with the notions entertained by others of its magnitude. "But it is not as a commercial association so much as a great territorial power, that the East "Until 1815 and 1816, when the continued fall India company has become so distinguished. The in the price of cotton goods, caused by the astonfirst establishments of the English in India, as of ishing discoveries and inventions of Arkwright, other European nations, arose out of the alleged and the other founders and improvers of the cotton necessity of providing armed factories or strong- manufacture, enabled us to export cottons to India holds, where the adventurers might warehouse their and to undersell the natives, the trade between this goods, and reside in safety for the purpose of car-country and India was of the most limited descriprying on their intercourse with the natives; but the tion. Previously to the opening of the trade in factories speedily degenerated into fortifications, 1813-'14, the total amount of the exports of all sorts, and the garrisons into armies. For a while the including the important item of military stores, by power of the English and French was pretty nearly the East India Company and by private traders in balanced in India; but the talents and victories of the Company's ships, did not amount to 1,400,000%. the famous Lord Clive gave us a decided superiority a year; and even on this a considerable loss is beover every competitor, foreign or native, and ex- lieved to have been incurred! But such has been tended our sway over some of the largest and finest the increased demand for British cottons, that the portions of the Mogul empire. The policy of value of those exported to India amounts, at preClive, whether it were really approved by the suc- sent, to above 2,500,000l. a year, and the whole ceeding governors-general of our Indian domi- of our exports to her to near 4,000,000l. Even nions, or were forced upon them by necessity, has, this, considering the vast extent of India, is but a some few short intervals excepted, been steadily trifling export; it is, in fact, less than half the followed up; and with such signal success, that our amount of our exports to the United States. Indian empire comprises at present the whole of "The restricted amount of our commerce with Hindostan from the Himalaya Mountains to Cape India may, perhaps, be in some degree, ascribed to Comorin, with a population of above 120 millions! its having been so long monopolized by the East "The most exaggerated accounts have been at India Company. But this will not explain the all times current in Europe of the extraordinary small surplus of Indian revenue; for, however illwealth of India, and of the importance of the com-fitted to serve as a commercial engine, the East merce with that part of the world. After the vic- India Company has governed India with singular tories of Lord Clive, the most sanguine expecta- discretion; and has made the most praiseworthy tions began to be entertained, not only of a vast efforts to enforce economy in all departments of the administration, and to appoint the best men to for four votes. There were 2003 proprietors on all situations of power and emolument in that coun- the company's books in 1825; of these, 1494 were try. The patronage of India has always been less qualified to give single votes; 392, two votes; 69, jobbed and abused than that of England; and there three votes; and 48, four votes. Upon any speare few governments that have made more vigo-cial occasion, 9 proprietors, duly qualified by the rous exertions to repress abuse, and to protect the possession of 1000l. stock, may, by a requisition rights of their subjects. in writing to the court of directors, call a general "Under the act 3 & 4 W. 4. c. 85., to which court; which the directors, are required to summon we have alluded above, for continuing the charter within 10 days, or, in default, the proprietors may till 1854, the functions of the East India Com-call such court by notice affixed upon the Royal pany have been rendered wholly political. She Exchange. In all such courts the questions are is to continue to govern India, with the concur- decided by a majority of voices; in case of an rence and under the supervision of the Board of equality, the determination must be by the treaControl, nearly on the plan laid down in Mr. surer drawing a lot. Nine proprietors may, by a Pitt's act, in 1784, by which the Board of Control requisition in writing, demand a ballot upon any was constituted. All the real and personal pro-question, which shall not be taken within 24 hours perty belonging to the company on the 22d of after the breaking up of the general court. April, 1834, is vested in the crown, and is to be "Court of Directors.—The court of directors is held or managed by the company in trust for the composed of 24 members, chosen from among the same; subject, of course, to all claims, debts, con- proprietors, each of whom must be possessed of tracts, &c. already in existence, or that may here- 20001. stock; nor can any director, after being after be brought into existence by competent autho-chosen, act longer than while he continues to hold rity. The company's debts and liabilities are all stock. Of these, 6 are chosen on the second Wedcharged on India. The dividend, which is to con- nesday in April in each year, to serve for 4 years, tinue at 10 per cent, is to be paid in England out in the room of 6 who have completed such service. of the revenues of India; and provision is made After an interval of 12 months, those who had gone for the establishment of a security fund for its dis-out by rotation are eligible to be reelected for the charge. The dividend may be redeemed by par- ensuing 4 years. Formerly, no person who had liament, on payment of 2007. for 100l. stock, any been in the company's civil or military service in time after April, 1874; but it is provided, in the India was eligible to be elected a director, until he event of the company being deprived of the go- had been a resident in England two years after vernment of India in 1854, that they may claim quitting the service; but this condition no longer redemption of the dividend any time thereafter exists; and all civil or military servants of the upon 3 years' notice. (3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 85.) company in India, supposing they are otherwise "Company's Stock-forms a capital of 6,000,000l. | eligible, may be chosen directors immediately on into which all persons, natives or foreigners, males their return to England, provided they have no unor females, bodies politic or corporate (the Gover-settled accounts with the company; if so, they are nor and Company of the bank of England only ineligible for 2 years after their return, unless their excepted), are at liberty to purchase, without limi-accounts be sooner settled. (3 & 4 Will. 4. c. tation of amount. Since 1793, the dividends have been 10 per cent, to which they are limited by the late act. 85. § 28.) The directors choose annually, from amongst themselves, a chairman and a deputychairman. They are required by by-laws to meet "General Courts.-The proprietors in general once in every week at least; but they frequently court assembled are empowered to enact by-laws, meet oftener, as occasion requires. Not less than and in other respects are competent to the com- 13 can form a court. Their determinations are plete investigation, regulation, and control of every guided by a majority. In case of an equality, the branch of the company's concerns; but, for the question must be decided by the drawing of a lot more prompt despatch of business, the executive by the treasurer; upon all questions of importance, detail is vested in a court of directors. A gene- the sense of the court is taken by ballot. The ral court is required to be held once in the months company's officers both at home and abroad, receive of March, June, September, and December, in each their appointments immediately from the court, to year. No one can be present at a general court whom they are responsible for the due and faithful unless possessed of 500l. stock; nor can any per- discharge of the trust reposed in them. The pason vote upon the determination of any question who tronage is, nevertheless, so arranged, as that each has not been in possession of 1000l. stock for the member of the court separately participates therepreceding 12 months, unless such stock have been in. obtained by bequest or marriage. Persons pos"Secret Committee.-The principal powers of sessed of 1000l. stock are empowered to give a sin- the court of directors are vested in a secret comgle vote; 3000l. are a qualification for two votes; mittee, forming a sort of cabinet or privy council. 60007. for three votes; and 10,000l. and upwards All communications of a confidential or delicate vernor and three councillors, the governor of the Bengal presidency being at the same time governor-general of India. In their several presidencies, the governors and their councillors possess the privilege of enacting and enforcing laws; sub nature between the Board of Control and the company are submitted, in the first instance at least, to the consideration of this committee; and the directions of the board, as to political affairs, may be transmitted direct to India, through the committee, without being seen by the other directors.ject, however, in some cases, to the concurrence The secret committee is appointed by the court of directors, and its members are sworn to secrecy. "The territorial possessions of the East India Company are divided into the three presidencies of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay, at each of which the executive government is administered by a go of the supreme court of judicature, and, in all cases, to the approval of the court of directors and the board of control. "We copy the following tables of revenue, &c. from Mr. M'Culloch's Statistics, vol. ii. p. 519. AN ACCOUNT of the Total Annual Revenues and Charges of the British Possessions in India under the East India Company, from 1809-10 to 1829-30; showing also the Nett Charge of Bencoolen, Prince of Wales Island, and St. Helena, the interest paid on account of Debts in India, and the Amount of Territorial Charges paid in England.— (Parl. Papers, No. 22. Sess. 1830, and No. 306. Sess. 1833.) ABSTRACT VIEW of the Revenues and Charges of India for the Years 1831-32, 1832-33, 1833-34, and (by estimate,) 1834-35. 190,128 217,703 L. L. L. L. 730,791 736,530 154.998 922,770 1,077,768 681,516 271,634 651,182 147,677 1,004,992 310,096 689,152 1,323,305 1.415,446 1,466,164 348,632 727,479 3,025,746 4,856,857 2,484,Q76 3,250,715 945,275 N. B.-The Company realized in 1834-35 the sum of 10,679,2231. by the sale of commercial assets. The debts of the Company in India on the 30th of April, 1834, amounted to 34,463,4831., bearing an interest of 1,754,5451. a year. [Parl. Paper, No. 380, Sess. 1836. |