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PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Phenomena of the Atmosphere.

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There are two kinds of mists, dry and wet Dry fogs, according to some philosophers, are intimately connected with volcanick eruptions. A mist of this kind enveloped all Europe in 1783, at the moment when the volcanick fire made Iceland trem ble, and immediately after the disaster of Calabria, so familiar to all. A similar fog overspread the Tyrol and Switzerland, just before the earthquake at Lisbon, in 1755; it appeared composed of fine earthy particles.

for boilers. These being so corroded and worn out, cast-iron pans were substituted, made of separate pieces and fastened together with screws, the joints being tightened with a cement of cast-iron borings. With care, these pans lasted a long time. The pans used at the present period arc about twenty-five feet long, and six and a half feet wide, and the length of the furnace from eighty to one hundred feet. The quantity of salt made at the time when they began to use the stone-coal furnaces was from two hundred and fifty to three hundred bushels per week. As the furnaces were enlarged, and improved in their structure and management, the quantity increased, until, at the present time, they make in some instances, nine hundred or a thousand bushels per week. The salt-water, as it comes from the wells, is very clear, and of the temperature of the coldest Dew is supposed to be the result of radiation from spring-water. When it becomes even moderately the earth's surface into the higher regions of the at warm, it begins to turn red, and when saturated by mnosphere, by which the heat of the surface is found, boiling, it is nearly the colour of blood. In this state, it is drawn off into a large trough, called "the in clear nights, from 7° to 120 below that of the brine-trough," placed near the furnace, for the pur- atmosphere, a few feet above the surface. The air pose of settling or clarifying. When cool it becomes in contact with the surface, is, of course, cooled down perfectly clear and is then returned into the grain- to it, and deposites its moisture. Dews are always ers, where it is boiled down into salt, and lifted out heaviest in clear still nights, clouds acting as upon a platform, for the purpose of draining off the bitter-water," or muriate of lime, a very abundant screen to prevent radiation, and winds bringing a and troublesome component in all the western sa- constant supply of warmer particles. Dew is delines. In the course of eight or ten days, a red sed- posited abundantly in hot countries, where it is often iment, two or three inches in thickness, resembling a substitute for rain. In many places, however, it red paint, forms in the bottom of the "brine-trough." is hurtful both to man, and to the growth of plants. It is composed principally of a carbonate of iron, held in solution by the carbonick acid gas of the water, and set free on the application of heat. At this period, a large portion of the furnaces have a small steam-engine attached for the purpose of raising water, which contains more salt the nearer they approach to the bottoms of the wells. The average quantity required to make a bushel of salt, is about seventy gallons. The total amount made in the year 1824, is estimated by the inspector at one million and a half of bushels-a very great distance from the year 1807.

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Hoar-frost is dew frozen.

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Rain, snow, and hail, are familiar to all; and the nature and causes of each we have heretofore described. There are some atmospherical phenomena which were once considered as miraculous. Showers of blood, so called, amongst the number, take place when the rainwater draws with it a great number of certain red insects, which float in the atmosphere, or swarm on the earth. Water-spouts, volcanick eruptions, or winds, have sometimes filled the atmosphere in cerWithin a few years, the manufacture of coarse salt has been commenced, and large quantities are tain sections, with a vegetable powder or yellow produced, equal in quality to the best Turk's island dust, which being precipitated to the earth by rain, salt. After the water is evaporated to the state of has given rise to the assertion, that showers of sula strong brine and purified, it is drawn off into a long shallow vat, or cistern, and kept at a moderate temperature by the aid of steam, furnished by the boilers, and conducted the whole length of the cistern in a metallick or a wooden pipe. The salt is deposited slowly on the bottom of the vat, in beautiful, four-sided pyramidal crystals, of great purity. It is removed once in eight days, and is then usually about a foot deep all over the floor of the vat; some vats are several hundred feet in length, and ten or twelve feet in width.

phur have actually occurred. Snow and rain, not unfrequently fall, charged with electricity; and the sparkling, on touching the ground, has led many to believe that the phenomenon was a shower of fire. Parhelions and rainbows, both atmospherical phenomena, we have before described.

Many travellers, when standing upon very elevated mountains, have observed their own image reflected in very light fogs, and surrounded by several concentrick circles, adorned with the colours of the These are called the apotheoses of trav

The Kenhawa salines present a most interesting At interand lively scene of activity and business. vals of every quarter of a mile, both shores of the rainbow. river are lined with furnaces, sending forth dense ellers. curling volumes of coal smoke. The busy hum of voices, and the rattling of the "train-wagons," along the rail-ways, with the bustle of the salt-boats, and steam-boats, to which the depth of the river affords a safe and pleasant navigation to the upper furnaces, give to this spot all the life and activity of a large city.

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"The Mirage,' or appearance of objects which are not actually in the horizon, or which exist there in a different situation, is one of the most remarkable of optical illusions. At sea, rocks and sands, concealed under the water, appear as if they were

moves in the air. This phenomenon was observed by the ancients. When the fires were seen in pairs, they were called Castor and Pollux; when the flame was single it bore the name of Helen. The spears of an army, according to Homer and Virgil, often appeared ornamented with these electrical plumes. Forskal, a Swedish naturalist, travelling on horseback in snowy weather, saw his fingers, his switch, and the ears of his horse, covered with a fire of this description.

raised above the surface. The Swedish sailors long searched for a pretended magick island, which, from time to time could be descried upon the isles of Aland and the coasts of Upland. It was a rock elevated by the mirage. At times, the English have seen with terrour the coasts of Calais and Bologne apparently approaching the shores of their island. Vessels sometimes present themselves to the view as if they were upset, or as if sailing in the clouds. The most celebrated example of this phenomena, is that which is frequently seen in the straits of Messi- Globes of fire, sometimes of a red light, but oftenna, and which the people attribute to the fairy Mor-er of a vivid whiteness, have been observed to shoot gana, Fata Morgana. The spectator, standing on through the atmosphere with the rapidity of lightthe Italian coast, perceives, upon an inclined plane, ning. They sometimes appear, traverse the horiformed by the waves driven towards the middle of zon, blaze for a few seconds, then break in pieces the strait, images of palaces, embattled ramparts, or discharge torrents of flame, with a tremendous houses and ships, at one time turned upside down, detonation. They not unfrequently occasion great at another, confusedly set up again, and presenting damage to houses as well as forests. Electricity the spectacle of towns and landscapes in the air. and hydrogen are supposed to act an important part Of all the effects arising from this cause, that which in these phenomena; but the true cause is merely has been most thoroughly examined, is the optical conjectural. The stones which are sometimes disillusion which the French experienced in the deserts covered, are supposed to be the nuclei of the fire, in the vicinity of Egypt; the sandy plain, covered but whence they are derived cannot be ascertained in the distance by a thick vapour, presented the deceptive image of a vast lake, towards which they eagerly hastened, but which appeared to fly before

them."

The shooting stars which sometimes fall to the earth, are supposed to be the effect of hydrogen gas more or less sulphuretted,

A most imposing and brilliant phenomenon occurThe zodiacal light, electricity, meteors, and the red in November, 1833, which has received the appelaurora borealis, are frequent and familiar occurren-lation of the meteorick shower. It was observed in alces in the atmosphere, to which we have given our most every part of the continent, and will probably be separate attention in other places.

recollected by every one of our readers. As a simAnimal substances, in a state of putrefaction, al- ilar phenomenon occurred the next year, it was imways emit phosphorus, which, taking fire from the agined by some, that the meteors were derived from contact of the atmosphere, produces light and the extreme portions of a nebulous body, which rewandering flames. Such is probably the origin of volves round the sun. This hypothesis led to the those ignes fatui, that flutter at night over church-supposition that the same phenomenon occurred an yards and marsh-fields, so much to the excitement nually. It does not, however, seem to have been and disturbance of superstitious fears, arising, how-supported by the fact, inasmuch as the occurrence ever, from the development of phosphoretted hy- was not observed last year. There is but little drogen; they are necessarily soon extinguished; a succession of these fires will therefore appear one single flame, which moves rapidly from place to place, when we attempt to approach it. The air driven on before us, forces the flame to recede.

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doubt, however, that the phenomenon took place beyond the atmosphere of the earth.

There are hundreds of atmospherick phenomena continually occurring, which serve, however, on the one hand, but to remind us of the confined limits of our own comprehension, and on the other, to astonish us as the manifestations of the Almighty Omniscience.

We shall next speak of physical climates.

He that has energy enough in his constitution to root out a vice, should go a little farther, and try to plant a virtue in its place, otherwise he will have his labour to renew. A strong soil that has produced weeds, may be made to produce wheat, with far less difficulty than it would cost to make it produce nothing.

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The acer genus of plants, includes about thirty-though, it is not remarkable for durability and strength. four species, of which the common name is maple. The variety called bird's-eye and curled-maple, is Eleven of these species belong to North America, held in great esteem. It is capable of being highly welve to Europe, six of great beauty to Japan, and polished, and is frequently employed with good efthe rest to different parts of Asia. The species com- fect in inlaying. It is also considerably used in the monly known in North America, are the red or soft- manufacture of chairs and other pieces of furniture; maple, the white or silver-maple, hairy-maple, the fowling-pieces, musical instruments, ornamental sugar-rock or hard-maple, the sweet-tree or black-work-boxes, &c. Indeed, the maple is not surpassed maple, the striped-maple, also called false dogwood by many trees in the variety of purposes in which it and moosewood, the mountain-maple bush, the ash-may be usefully employed. The sugar-maple is maple, or box-elder, and some southern varieties. Two only of the whole (acer saccharinum, the sugarmaple, and acer nigrum the sweet-tree or black-maple) produce sap, from which good sugar may be obtained. The timber, however, is of beautiful texture, and peculiarly adapted for ornamental purposes,

found on this continent, principally between the 42d and 48th parallels of latitude. It is abundant in New England, New York, the north of Pennsylvania, the Canadas, and the northwestern states and territories. The black-maple flourishes in more southern and warmer climates, and is found on the banks

of the Ohio and Mississippi, and in nearly all the when the sugar season arrives they are always

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One or two of the tubs or troughs being placed at each tree, a small sloping incision, about two or three inches long and half an inch deep, is made into the tree, the under side of the cut being sloping, so that the sap may run down to its lowest point: if the tree be fit to tap, the sap oozes from the cut inmediately. About an inch below the cut, the gouge is driven in, and the spout inserted, through which the sap is conveyed to the tub. If an auger be used, no incision is made with the axe, and a spout, round at the upper end, and a hole through the centre, is driven in. One man may tap two hundred trees or more in a day. One tapping gene

Were it practicable, maple sugar could doubtless be manufactured in this country, in sufficient quantities to supply the consumption of the United States. But so long as brown sugar, the common sugar of commerce, can be produced with so much facility and cheapness, it can never he practicable or economical to manufacture maple sugar for general consumption. Indeed, it cannot now be manufactured, unless as an article of luxury, or in some remote parts of the country where labour is cheap, and fuel abundant, with any view to economy. As society advances, it is obvious that the practicability of manufacturing it will grow less and less, and soon its manufacture will become totally impracticable, un-rally answers for the season, and the trees, if not less as an article of luxury. hacked too much, may be tapped for several years in succession.

In very many parts of the northern states, there are fine maple orchards, and quite extensive sugaries. Many persons manufacture the sugar for the use of their families, and the surplus over a year's supply, is sent to market. The Indians also make considerable quantities, and carry it to market in little baskets made of birch-bark, fancifully wrought with porcupine-quills of various colours. In the country, it is to be bought frequently as low as six cents per pound; but the price in the city varies from twelve to twenty-five cents. Maple molasses is seldom found in market.

The sugar season commences usually about the middle of March, though not unfrequently a favourable time arrives towards the latter part of February. It should be commenced before the frost is out of the ground, or at least, before the sap begins to return to the branches and buds, for the development of the leaves. The most favourable season is when the nights are frosty, and the day moderately warm, with sun just sufficient to thaw the sap.

The sap is collected daily, sometimes twice a day, in pails, and carried to the boiling-place and put into barrels, a cistern, or some other large vessel or vessels. One tree will furnish six, twelve, and sometimes twenty-four quarts in a day. The sugar is produced by "boiling down" the sap. For that purpose, two stout crotches are fixed upright in the ground, eight or ten feet apart, and on them is placed a cross-stick from which pots or kettles are hung; a hook to hang them by being made of a small crooked branch of wood. Two large logs are rolled up on each side, and the fire is made underneath the kettles of split or small wood. There is usually one large kettle, which is supplied as the sap boils away from the smaller ones, so that it is kept constantly boiling, while the smaller ones are supplied with fresh sap. The kettles are thus kept boiling, till the contents of the larger one, arrive at the consistency of a thick sirup or molasses. The sirup is then taken out and strained into a The first thing necessary to be done when the barrel. Eggs, milk, or something else, is afterwards season arrives, is to prepare the spouts, and troughs thrown in, to precipitate all its impurities to the botor tubs. The first may be split from a block of pine tom. It is then strained again, and put back into or white wood with a gouge, so that they may be the kettle to be "sugared off." A piece of pork or gouge-shaped at one end, in case a gouge is to be butter is thrown in to keep it from boiling over. used in tapping, or they may be made of elder or When it reaches that state, in which it candies, by any other pithy wood, if the trees are to be bored. pouring it on the snow, it is quite delicious to the It is possible that more sap may be obtained by palate. It is at this stage of the process, that gencutting a notch in the tree with an axe, and inserting tlemen and ladies, who frequently happen in at the a gouge below it, than by boring into the tree with " sugaring off," enjoy themselves most. When it is an auger; though the tree is not so much injured by finished, and that is known by its "graining," it is the latter course as by the former. The vessels em- poured into a barrel or other vessel provided for the ployed for catching the sap may be either small tubs purpose. To produce a fine grain it is stirred with or pails, or troughs hewn out of small pine or bass- a stick or ladle. Unless stirred in this manner the wood timber. One man, with an axe and addice, may grain is quite coarse, and, indeed, the whole may bemake two dozen troughs in a day. At old sugaries, come a solid cake or mass. To make a dry article, however, the tubs and spouts are usually carefully a hole may be bored in the bottom of the vessel, and housed and preserved from year to year, so that the molasses thus drained off. Several hundred

pounds are thus made, according to the number of resemble each other in every respect. The surface

trees tapped, in the course of the season, which continues until near leafing-time. One good tree will perhaps produce five or six pounds or more. Some of the maple orchards are very beautiful. "The underbrush and all foreign trees are cleared out, and the majestick brotherhood of maples, with their tall clear trunks, rising perhaps fifty feet without a single limb or excrescence, and their generous boughs, with their broad palmated leaves extending far on high, mingling themselves with each other, as if to form a panoply for the fair scene below, are the sole monarchs of the delightful realm. Indeed, the forest maple yields to but few trees in point of magnificence and grandeur. As an ornamental shade tree, the maple is held in high esteem. It lends a charm to almost every pretty park or promenade in the pleasant villages of New England, where it is an especial favourite. The smooth and placid Allegany flows on before you, as it has flowed for ages, with nothing to disturb its bosom, save now and then a wild bird, an Indian canoe, or an occasional timber-raft; while around you thickly stand the dark and towering pines in their primeval strength and grandeur. But a few years shall elapse, and that forest shall Ellicottville is the county town of Cattaraugus. I have disappeared, and a proud city shall have usurp-reached the place after a smart trot of twenty-two ed its place. Albeit, the plan of the city is already miles from Randolph, through quite a romantick developed, and ere the spring arrives the axe-men country, over high hills and through secluded vales. shall be heard preparing the way for its coming. The village is small, and consists of a few dwellings And why should there not be a city there? The plat and stores, two or three hotels, a church, and courtis level, and sufficiently elevated, and although it is house. One of the hotels nad raised the tempernow locked in, it shall shortly have at least four ance standard; but within, the mocker, wine, was great and important points of commercial communi- alluringly displayed, and a large box of tobacco and cation. The New York and Erie rail-road, which pipes were afforded gratis, to all who chose that will touch the Allegany at this point, will render it kind of inebriation. The landlord expected that you easily accessible from the lake and from the city of would choose both, as a consideration of troubling New York. The contemplated canal, will open a his house. Temperance men profess to go against convenient communication with the city of Roches- alcohol.. Yet, they will drink wine, cider, ale, &c., ter. By removing a few slight obstructions in the for the very reason, that they contain alcohol. Now, river, a steam-boat and sloop navigation may con- what is the difference between wine, and rum and nect it with Cincinnati, Louisville, and New Orleans. water? Or, to speak literally, what is the differWill not Allegany city thus become a most impor-ence between alcohol in a diluted state, and alcohol tant point the general medium of communication in a diluted state? Now, pray, Mr. Landlord, come between the great commercial emporium of the United up to the high cold-water mark, or disband and get States, and that vast country bordering on the west-out of the way. ern lakes and the great western rivers? If it does The county-supervisors were in session at this not become a jealous rival of the greatest of the western cities, I am no prophet.

is generally uneven, stony, and heavily timbered, and the soil rather damp and cold, and not remarkable for its fertility. Cattaraugus is abundantly watered: it has the Cattaraugus creek on the north, and the Conewango and the beautiful Allegany on the south. The valley of the Allegany and the contiguous parts are perhaps the most valuable and extensive pine districts, with the exception of Maine, in the United States. The timber along the Allegany river, in the southern part of this county, and in the adjacent portion of Pennsylvania, is almost wholly pine; and the forests are of very great extent, and the trees large, tall, and excellent for lumber. The inhabitants of this district are chiefly engaged in the lumbering business, and agriculture is almost wholly neglected. The markets for the lumber are found down the Ohio river; some of it stops at Cincinnati, and much also goes to New Orleans. The logs are principally cut and hauled in the winter, and sawed at the mills in the summer and fall. Rafts are made upon the ice, and are thus very conveniently set afloat, on the opening of the rivers in the spring.

RAMBLINGS IN WINTER.-No. III..

Cattaraugus county, N. Y., contains, probably, upwards of twenty thousand inhabitants-not more than two thirds as many as its eastern neighbour, Allegany, nor more than half the number of the contiguous Chautauque. These three counties closely

place. The town was filled with some score or more of, these country-aldermen, with their numerous clients and petitioners. These grand seniors imbody the authority and majesty of the county, and sit in the name of the people to canvass votes, the demerits of dogs, and the outrages of wolves; to smooth highways, erect bridges, run fences, and impound stray swine; to superintend the poor, to supervise the county, and to march forces against wild-fires. They are a useful order of men, but at

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