King Leopold realized that if his country was to remain economically powerful her army must be strengthened, and to effect this was his constant preoccupation; but the Catholic party-in power since 1884-always frustrated his efforts, and up to the time of his death Belgium still preserved her system of recruiting by drawing lots, conscripts who had been drawn having the right to get themselves replaced by substitutes at the cost of a fine of 1,600 francs. This system of substitution was abolished by the Chamber in 1909, and the King on his death-bed signed the law enforcing personal service.

Leopold II. had expressed a desire to be buried with the utmost simplicity, in the early morning, and without official ceremonies. The Government did not think fit to conform to these wishes, however, and arranged an imposing funeral. He was succeeded by his nephew and nearest male heir, Prince Albert, whose consort, Elizabeth, had been born a duchess of Bavaria.

I. PRE-WAR SITUATION, 1910-4.-By Belgian constitutional law the heir-presumptive to the throne does not become king until he has taken the oath. Leopold II.'s death consequently entailed a temporary regency which, in accordance with Belgian law, was exercised by a Conseil de Régence composed of members of the Government:-T. Schollaert, L. de Lautsheere, J. Davignon, J. Liebaert, Baron Descamps, A. Hubert, A. Delbeke, G. Hellepette, J. Hellebrut, J. Renkin. On Dec. 23, in presence of the Chambers and of delegations from the constituent bodies of the country, King Albert I. of Belgium took the oath of allegiance to the Belgian Constitution. The new King had already shown his intention to carry on his uncle's work, having, while still heir-presumptive, made a journey to the Congo for purposes of investigation. But alongside that keen interest in colonial, economic, and military problems in which he resembled Leopold II., he also from the first showed anxiety for his kingdom's intellectual development and social organization.

Belgium had indeed advanced considerably during the reign of Leopold II. She had not only achieved a high degree of prosperity, but had also undergone an intellectual renascence, giving birth during the second half of the century to a school of writers, painters, and men of science worthy of comparison with those of the neighbouring countries. Furthermore, the development of trade, with its increase in the numbers of industrial workers in 1910 they numbered 1,270,484-raised social problems with increasing urgency. Belgian trade had found immense markets, thanks in part to the cheapness of its products due to low wages. The growing strength of the trade unions enabled the workers to claim an improvement in their material conditions, and Belgium began to find herself confronted by the difficulty of entering on the path of social reform without compromising her economic stability. Political struggles of peculiar intensity were rendering the situation still more delicate. In Belgium social and economic claims are always mixed up with purely political questions. Social and professional organizations are at the same time political groups, and their action makes itself as much felt in political affairs as in the economic sphere. In 1907 the trade-union movement was divided as follows:Socialist unions. 142,035 members

Catholic

Liberal Neutral

Number of women in unions

1,020 11,667 10,517

The socialist unions first tested their strength in the campaign opened by the Socialist party in 1912 for universal suffrage pure and simple." This campaign coincided with the violent struggle on the education question which began just then between the parties of the Left-Liberals and Socialists-and the Catholic party. The Catholics, who commanded a majority in the Chamber, introduced a bill to put the voluntary schools and the State schools on an absolutely equal footing. Education in Belgium, especially primary education, is largely in the hands of the religious denominations. Their schools, recognized and subsidized by the State, were in many communes the only teaching institutions. It was to these denominational schools that the Government proposed to accord the same treatment as that given by the State to its own official schools.

The proposal raised a storm of adverse opinion throughout the country. A monster demonstration organized by the Socialist and Liberal parties took place at Brussels. The Liberal party, rallying to the principle of universal suffrage at 25 years of age and the single vote, formed a bloc with the Labour party in order to oppose the Right, and they issued joint lists of candidates in most of the towns. The Catholic party, nevertheless, proved successful in the elections of 1912, preserving a majority in the Chamber.

These elections, maintaining in power a party that had governed uninterruptedly for 28 years, had grave consequences. The Catholic party was strongest in the rural districts and in the small Flemish towns. The Walloon districts, more industrial in character, returned a large majority of Liberals and Socialists. On the morrow of the Catholic victory violence of party feeling, much exasperated by the new Education Act, led to an outburst of rage and indignation in the more politically advanced parts of the country. In certain Walloon circles there arose the idea of the administrative separation of Flanders from Wallonia. Flanders should remain Catholic; the Walloon country should be free to have the advanced (Left) Government it desired. This movement, combining with that concerned with the language question, threatened serious results. "Flamingantisme," which originated in democratic aspirations, seeking to bring together in Flanders the common people, Flemish of speech, and the French-speaking bourgeoisie, had little by little-obsessed by its dominant idea and by a sort of regionalistic mysticismturned towards reaction. The language question had been dealt with by various laws-that of 1878 regarding the use of the languages by public authorities; that of 1898 about the publication of laws; that of 1910 on free secondary education; and by the laws of 1913, on the use of the languages in the army, and of 1914, on primary education, which were designed to complete the legal equality of the Flemish language with the French. Yet in the hearts of a minority, a desire was shaping itself to expel the French language from Flanders.

In 1913 a bill was introduced in the Chamber proposing the division of the army into Walloon and Flemish units, but was defeated by an immense majority. This did not deter three deputies-a Catholic, a Liberal, and a Socialist-from proposing to the Chamber in 1914 the Flamandization of the university of Ghent, in which French was the official language.

The Government did not perceive that by pursuing a course of purely party politics they were stimulating the growth of this separatist movement, and despite the protests of the Left they once more brought before the Chamber their Education bill, which they had temporarily abandoned. To counter this, and to force upon the Chamber the adoption of the universal suffrage "pure and simple" which they demanded, in April 1913 the Socialist party organized a general strike, which spread over the whole country, involving many hundred thousands of workers. The Government would not yield, however, and their Education Act became law. If in this the Catholic party had gained an undeniable victory, it had been at the price of adopting compulsory education, which for many years past had been advocated by the Liberals. It was now enforced by the laws of May 19 and June 15 1914.

Educational System.-School attendance is obligatory from 6 to 14 and if they persist in neglect of their duty, they are first officially years of age. The juge de paix has to admonish recalcitrant parents; warned before the final steps are taken of the infliction of a fine and the posting of their names in their commune. By the law of May 19 1914 each commune must possess an official school. One or more voluntary schools, if such exist in the district, may be "adopted"; but if this is done a communal school must still be provided, supposing it is demanded by a sufficient number of the inhabitants to ensure it an effective minimum attendance of 20 children. In all schools, whether official or adopted, the teachers must be Belgian schools, and they receive grants from the central authorities of and diplomes. The State inspects both communal and adopted province and commune. Education is free, and the necessary books and appliances are provided free for poor families. The syllabus of primary schools includes religion (but fathers can claim their chil ing, writing, arithmetic, weights and measures, the language used by dren's exemption from religious instruction), moral teaching, readthe majority of the local population, geography, history of Belgium,

In

drawing, hygiene, singing and gymnastics. In the girls' schools needlework, domestic economy, and housewifery are added. agricultural districts agriculture and horticulture are also taught. Further, the State subsidizes such initiative on the part of communes as the formation of classes (such as exist in Ghent, Brussels, and Liége) for backward and non-normal children, on the provision of 4th-degree instruction This 4th degree, first adopted by the commune of St. Gilles consists of technical instruction for children of 12 to 14. Its object is to give elementary training sufficient to enable the child to specialize as artisan or craftsman, and so to enter industrial life already qualified.

Belgium's efforts to develop the technical training of her population increased steadily during the last few years before the war, much being done in this way by the provinces and communes. Hainault (Hainaut) organized an admirable centre of technical instruction at Charleroi under the name of the Université de Travail. Future workers, male and female, are admitted to its courses at the age of 13 and they receive salaries, which enable them to pass through the necessary years of training. In 1912 1,700 pupils attended this school. All trades are taught there, each with the best possible equipment of tools and machinery. Reading-rooms are open to the pupils, and even also to workmen not attending the school who think they can in the slightest degree improve tools or machines. Concurrently with the technical courses, general courses are given, notably in foreign languages, so that pupils may be in a position to follow the technical periodicals of great neighbouring countries. The province of Hainault finds the large funds necessary for supporting this immense institution by means of a special tax on industrial profits. The great manufacturers of the province not only accepted this tax without complaint, but every year make many voluntary donations to the Université de Travail. To encourage the use of this school by the working-classes the employers of Hainault decided to accept no workers under the age of 18; while assuring well-paid posts to every pupil passing out of the Université de Travail. This close collaboration of public authorities, manufacturers, and workers produced most remarkable results in the course of a few years. Besides the Université de Travail there are provincial schools of arts and crafts, agricultural mechanics, hosieryweaving, and industrial chemistry. The communes and many trade unions provide housewifery schools for young girls and schools for adults.

As regards agriculture, the State endeavoured to promote specialization in the subject by courses of lectures given all over the country. Such efforts made by public authorities, more especially by the provincial and communal administrative bodies, whose powers are very extensive, are rendered necessary by the social conditions of the country.

Population.-A population which in 1900 numbered 6,693,548 had in 1910 become 7,423.782-an increase of 10.91%, or over 1% per annum. Density increased from 227 to 252 inhabitants per sq. kilometre. East Flanders contained 374 inhabitants per sq. km., the province of Antwerp, 342, Hainault, 331, the province of Liége, 306, West Flanders, 270, Limburg, 114, the province of Namur, 99, Luxemburg, 52. Thickly populated areas and urban centres developed with lightning rapidity: in Antwerp the population increased 187% in 50 years, in Charleroi 147%, in Liége 105%. The whole population depended for support on the internal resources of the country emigration being almost negligible: in 1910 only 38,854 persons left the country (55% of them born in Belgium), principally for France (52%), Germany (13%) and Holland (12%). On the other hand, 44,950 immigrants settled in Belgium, coming chiefly from France (41%), Germany (21%) and Holland (16%).

To maintain such a dense population agriculture had to be brought to a pitch of intensiveness unknown elsewhere; and industry, with such vast numbers of hands to draw on, was able to develop with marvellous rapidity.

Industries.-The various industries of Belgium employ a large part of the population. In 1910 this industrial population comprised: Employers, or persons employing members of their own families as employees or workers Members of families as above.

Employees

Workers

Persons

Per cent.

15.23

260,521

91,693

5.36

87,463

5.12

centuries of specialization behind them, ensured a privileged position in the markets of the world. Even so, technical development was still advancing, and in 1914 the new Fourcault process had just been successfully introduced. By means of it glass is drawn without being touched by hand from the moment it comes out of the furnace until it is ready for sale as finished merchandise. There were, besides, seven factories producing annually 2,500,000 sq. metres of plate glass, representing a value of 28,500,000 francs, nine-tenths being exported; and the factory of Jumet produced annually 12,000,000 bottles. The Belgian cut-glass trade was equally important. The Val St. Lambert, with 5,300 hands, produced daily 250,000 pieces, an output (90% exported) realizing annually 13,000,000 francs.

In 1913 the metallurgical trade included: 21 high furnaces with 20,080 hands producing 96,000 tons of cast iron; 6 steel-works with 7,700 hands producing 1,134,000 tons of rough steel and 671,000 tons of finished products; 15 iron-works with 3,402 hands producing 27,100 tons of finished iron and 19,300 tons of finished steel. The steel industry, including coke-fired furnaces, employed in 1913 a total of 39,500 hands, and was represented by 41 factories with 2,498 coke-fired furnaces, employing 4,229 hands and producing 3,523,000 tons; 19 works with high furnaces, 5,289 hands, producing 2,484,690 tons; 28 Siemens-Martin furnaces producing 274,450 tons of rough steel; 84 converters producing 2,192,180 tons of rough steel and 1,409,940 tons of finished steel; 38 transforming plants producing 304,350 tons of finished iron and 448,400 tons of finished steel. The zinc industry possessed 14 foundries with 600 furnaces and 10 rolling mills, and produced annually 200,000 tons of rough zinc and 51,000 tons of sheet zinc. It employed 9,300 hands. The output, nine-tenths of which was exported, was worth 115,000,000 francs.

The collieries, the presence of which brought also the iron, zinc and steel industries to the provinces of Liége and Hainault-the coalyielding provinces-occupied a particularly important place in Belgium; 125 collieries, possessing 305 pits and employing 145,337 men, were producing annually 22,841,590 tons. In quantity this output nearly sufficed for the needs of the country, which consumed 26,000,000 tons per annum. But in quality the deficit was considerable. The output of steam and domestic coal was excessive, permitting an export of 6,000,000 tons, 5,000,000 of which went to France; while the lack of gas and coking coal necessitated the importation of 9,000,000 tons from Germany.

Although since 1910 the import of coal had exceeded the export, the discovery of two new coal fields permitted the hope that in the future Belgium would produce a quantity far in excess of what she needed for internal consumption. In 1901 deposits of coal were found in the Campine at depths of 430 and 630 metres. The first concessions were granted in 1906, the first sinkings-exceptionally difficult because of the water-bearing strata encountered-begun in 1909. No pits had started work before the war. Experimental borings, commenced in the south of Hainault in 1908, established the existence of fresh deposits at depths of 400 and 800 metres. No concession had, up to 1921, been granted by the State in these coal fields.

There were 62 factories for making coal dust into briquettes and other forms of patent fuel. In 1913 these employed 2,000 hands and produced 2,608,640 tons.

Next to the mines must be mentioned the important industry of the stone quarries. In 1913 1,556 quarries, 481 of them subterranean, employed 34,893 workmen, and produced 70,500,000 francs worth of paving-stones, broken stone, hewn stone, marble, chalk, lime, phosphates, plastic clay, dolomite and slate. Depending on the quarries were 70 cement factories in a state of rapid development, the cement export having risen from a value of 12,000,000 francs in 1908 to that of 22,000,000 francs in 1912.

A third group of important industries consisted of the textile manufactures of Flanders (flax, cotton, hemp, jute), and of the Verviers district (wool). In 1910 they accounted for 270,000 workers, employees, and masters; while the related clothing industry employed another 200,000 persons. The total value of the products represented 800,000,000 francs, 350,000,000 of which came from export.

The following table will indicate the relative importance of the different textile industries, and their development during the last years before the war:

Imports of raw materials, spun raw materials and woven goods amounted in 1911 to 838,700,000 francs, in 1912 to 985,300,000 francs, in 1913 to 998,400,000 francs. The exports of raw materials, spun goods, and woven goods amounted in 1911 to 871,400,000 francs, in 1912 to 1,033,400,000 francs, in 1913 to 998,700,000 francs.

Commerce.-Belgian commerce was as flourishing as Belgian industry. Facilitated by a network of ways and communications comprising 2,000 km. of water-ways (67 m. per sq. km.), 4,665 km. of broad-gauge railways (158 m. per sq. km.), 4,107 km. of narrowgauge railways, 9,851 km. of main roads, and 32,000 km. of local roads, import and export trade and transport were intensely active. Belgium's free-trade policy largely contributed to her commercial prosperity. In 1913 the import duties affected only 16.8% of imported goods. They were, moreover, extremely light, in 1900 representing 2.3% of the value of imports, in 1910 1.6%, in 1913 only 1.4%. It is true that a movement was already beginning towards the imposition of duties to check the dumping practised by certain foreign industries, or to induce other nations to admit Belgian goods freely; but this was merely a defensive policy, rendered necessary by that of foreign states.

Commercially Belgium held the sixth place in the world. The total figures of her import and export trades, not including goods in transit, rose as high as 8,765,673,061 francs. In 1913 this total was composed as follows:

Number of vessels Tonnage

1912

1900 1910 1913 5,250 6,796 7,043 7,134 |6,696,370 12,654,318 | 13,756,880 | 14,139,615

In 1913, out of 61,500,000 tons of total imports and exports, 23.650,000 tons passed through Antwerp. The public authorities had devoted ceaseless attention to the development of the port of Antwerp, and at the outbreak of the war it was one of the finest ports in the world, possessing 5,500 metres of riverside wharves, 19,000 metres of wharf-docks, 392 cranes of 2 tons, 8 cranes of 15 to 120 tons, 12 pneumatic floating grain-elevators, one automatic coal-weigher, one barge for ore. The Entrepôt Royal could accommodate 100,000 tons of goods; the granary store had a capacity of 350,000 tons. Numerous private stores and warehouses, a close network of railway lines, and six great dry-docks completed the equipment of the port. Agriculture.-Belgian agriculture was no less important than Belgian trade and industry. In 1914 the value of its products amounted to two milliards of francs. Agriculture was carried on at a high degree of intensity. Of the 2,945,000 hectares which constitute the national territory, 1,950,000 were in cultivation and pasture, among a population of nearly 7,800,000. The cultivable area per head of population was only 25 ares (in France 100 ares, in Great Britain 45 ares). Belgium, therefore, could not be self-support

ing. She was importing of her consumption of corn. Other foodstuffs were produced in almost sufficient quantity, thanks to scientific specialization. In 1914 stock-breeding produced 300,000 tons of meat, 40 kgm. per head of population per annum. Of sugar, potatoes, fruit, vegetables and horses there was even a considerable surplus available for exportation. The subdivision of land had been carried to an extreme point, 1,950,000 hectares being divided among 829,000 cultivators; 458,000 holdings were of less than onehalf hectare; the average for the rest being about five hectares per farm. Thanks to intensive breeding (Belgium in 1914 possessed 317,ooo horses, 1,879,000 horned stock, and 1,954,000 pigs) agriculture commanded larger supplies of manure than in any other country (275 kgm. per hectare). It followed that the yield per hectare of wheat, rye, barley, oats and potatoes also exceeded that of any other country. The area of cereal cultivation was not very extensive: 750,000 hectares out of a total of 1,430,000 hectares of ploughed land. Permanent pasture represented only 26% of cultivable land (65% in England); while on the other hand plants used for industrial purposes, root-crops and forage-crops which yield a much higher return in money, were largely cultivated.

Thus industrial crops occupied 95,000 hectares; forage, 292,000 hectares; orchards, 65,000 hectares; market gardens, 27,000 hectares; horticulture, practised especially in the environs of Brussels and Ghent, occupied 100,000 hectares, and provided a considerable export. As regards breeding, the export of Flemish horses brought in 50,000,000 francs.

from taxes was not increasing in amount. Revenue and expenditure Finance.-Depite the country's growing prosperity the revenue for the period 1910-4 (in thousands of francs) were as follows:Expenditure.

1910 1912

1914

Revenue.

The Army. Fully occupied with her economic development, and confiding absolutely in the neutrality which was supposed to be her safeguard, Belgium was giving no real thought in these years to defence. The Liberal party alone stood for the principle of universal military service. The Catholic party had always from electoral motives been firmly opposed to any reënforcement of the army or increase in military expenditure. The King, however, well informed on the international situation, never ceased to press for improvement in the country's military condition. In 1912 M. de Broqueville, then head of the Government, succeeded, despite his party's reluctance, in passing an Act establishing the principle of universal military service. In 1913 a complete reorganization of the army was voted. Having obtained the necessary credits for the fortification of Antwerp, Baron de Broqueville got several bills passed and promul gated numerous orders bestowing extended powers on the general military staff; creating a Supreme Council of National Defence artillery, cavalry and military engineering; reorganizing the Ecole de (Conseil Supérieur de la Défense Nationale); establishing schools of Guerre and the École Militaire; creating inspections générales of infantry, cavalry and commissariat; and considerably improving the equipment. These reforms were to be completed as a whole in five years. Already, however, the effective forces were augmented in number; the inclusion of all social classes in the army made it truly representative of the nation; a completely organized mobilization was prepared; confidence was at last felt in both officers and troops.

Such was the situation when suddenly the army found itself called on to the stage of war, to confront alone the formidable hosts of Germany.

II. THE WORLD WAR, 1914.-On Aug. 2 1914, the German Minister at Brussels handed the Minister for Foreign Affairs an ultimatum requiring him to permit the German troops to pass through Belgian territory, and to use the citadels of Liége and Namur for the purposes of their operations against France. A delay of 12 hours was granted for the acceptance of Germany's proposals; on the expiration of that time Belgium would be treated as an enemy. That same night the King presided at the council of ministers; the reply was formal: Belgium was resolved to defend her neutrality, sword in hand. On July 29 the Belgian army had been placed on a reënforced peace footing. On July 31 mobilization had been ordered; 15 classes of militia had been called up, the eight first forming the offensive force, the others

being reserved for the defence of the fortresses. Loyal to her international obligations, Belgium had disposed her forces so as to defend all her frontiers. The first division kept watch in England's direction; the third confronted Germany; at Namur the fourth defended the entrance of the Meuse Valley; while the fifth, concentrated in Hainault, guarded the French frontier.

Germany's ultimatum showed on which side danger lay. Yet the Belgian Government, wishing to sustain to the last moment the part assigned to it by the treaty of 1839, still refused the support of France. It was only when Germany's intention to cross her territory became evident that Belgium informed the nations who had guaranteed her neutrality that she assumed the defence of her fortresses, and that she declared herself ready to coöperate with the Powers in maintaining the integrity of her territory. The third division of the army, under General Leman, was charged with the defence of Liége; the fourth division held Namur; the bulk of the army was massed in the centre of the country, covering Brussels and the lines of communication with France, so as to be prepared for all eventualities.

The Government had convoked the Chambers for Aug. 4 on grounds of urgency, and the King had announced his intention of making the speech from the throne. On the morning of Aug. 4 the King, accompanied by the Queen, proceeded to the Parliament House, in the midst of great popular enthusiasm. His speech affirmed the country's definite decision to offer the enemy an unyielding resistance. The Chamber greeted these words with wild enthusiasm. After the departure of the King, who proceeded immediately to G.H.Q., Baron de Broqueville, as head of the Government, read the note just sent by Germany to the Minister for Foreign Affairs, expressing her intention" to execute, if necessary by force of arms, the measures of security rendered indispensable in view of French menaces." Parliament unanimously accepted war with all its consequences. M. Van der Velde, leader of the Socialist party, announced that his group would support the Government unreservedly. All parties rallied round the King. The Government, moreover, ceased to be a party-government, MM. Goblet d'Alviella and Hymans, leaders of the Liberal Left, and M. E. Van der Velde being appointed Ministers of State.

The Chamber at once set to work on the measures of law necessitated by the situation. Suddenly M. de Broqueville rose to read a telegram announcing the violation of Belgian territory by the German army. The deputies from Liége and its neighbourhood informed their colleagues of the news that their districts had been brutally invaded and occupied; and at once departed for their constituencies, to afford help and protection to the suffering inhabitants. As hour by hour the invasion of Belgium proceeded, the Chamber continued to pass laws delegating its powers, in the event of the invasion of each locality, to the local authorities; augmenting the contingent of the army; granting the Government a preliminary credit of 200,000,000 frs.; penalizing crimes and offences calculated to endanger the safety of the State; cancelling the ineligibility of soldiers for membership of Parliament, in order to permit the immediate enlistment of several members.

The spirit of the country was the same as that of the Chamber. Volunteers were besieging the recruiting-offices. In two or three days 40,000 had been equipped, and tens of thousands, still in their civilian clothes, had been dispatched to the camps for volunteers that were being formed in all directions.

A series of regulations were issued by the Government intended to prevent food-hoarding and the raising of prices, and to assure the food supplies of the nation. Bread was rationed at 400 grammes per head per day; in Sept. this ration was reduced to 250 grammes. Maximum prices were fixed for bread and the various kinds of flour. The right of requisition was given to governors of provinces for bread and flour; to burgomasters for potatoes, salt, sugar and rice; in the event of the invasion of a province the governor's powers of requisition passed to the commissaires d'arrondissement, in the case of their retreat to the

At the Ministère de l'intérieur a Central Commission was formed, consisting of one delegate for each province, with representatives of the central administration and of the army, its duty being to see to the sharing-out of the food supplies among all parts of the country. In each province the députation permanente (standing committee) of the provincial council was made responsible for the victualling of the province, and had to form committees in the communes to distribute provisions. Each week a return of all the food in the province had to be made by the députation permanente.

To ensure the proper working of this great system of food control and distribution, newly created in every detail, penalties were decreed for anyone trying to withhold goods from requisition; such hoards were to be confiscated and handed over to the Bureaux de Bienfaisance.

While these regulations were framed to safeguard the nation's economic life, its administrative life was being safeguarded in the event of enemy occupation by the measure passed by the Chamber on Aug. 4 providing for the delegation of powers, which was supplemented later by various royal decrees. Notices were posted in every commune of the country, warning the public that civilians were definitely forbidden to take part in operations of war, and that all arms must at once be given over into the hands of the authorities.

The Invasion.-During the night of Aug. 3-4 the German army crossed the Belgian frontiers. It immediately put into practice a system of terrorism in its dealings with the inhabitants, hoping in this way to terrorize the Government, demoralize the army, and break the national resistance.

The forward march of the German army was marked by an uninterrupted succession of atrocities. Once it was perceived that the Belgian army meant to offer a resistance on which Germany had not counted, pillage, burnings, and massacres began.

On the pretext that the inhabitants were armed, that francs tireurs attacked the German troops, the invading military command methodically organized the devastation of the country. Maps were issued to the officers indicating what towns and villages were to be burned down. The siege of Liége, with the preliminary repulses suffered by the German regiment which first attacked the outer forts, gave the signal for a campaign of reprisals directed against the civil population. The villages of Berneau, Mouland, Blegny-Trambleur, Barchon, Melen, Soumagne, Romsée, Harcourt, Hermée, Heure le Romain, Vivegnies, Julemont, Olne St. Hadelin, Battice, Grivegnée, Sprimont, Erneux, Francorchamps, and the towns of Visé and Herve, were burned to the ground, although they had been occupied for several days by the German army. Scenes of indescribable savagery were enacted: 623 persons were shot, massacred, or driven with blows of the rifle-butt into the flaming houses to be burnt alive. At Melen 72 men chosen haphazard were shot en masse, and finished off by blows with the butt-end under the eyes of their wives and children, who were then ordered to bury them at once. At Soumagne 55 men were shot by the firingparty detailed for executions, while the soldiers perpetrated shocking massacres of men, women and children in the village. At Visé, after the massacre of more than 20 persons, 631 men were led away captive. Not a single village escaped the fury of the troops; everywhere there was a reign of fire and sword. The burnings were scientifically organized. All units were provided with incendiary pastilles, and petrol was sprayed on the houses to be destroyed. At Herve, where more than 300 houses were burned, German inscriptions written by the troops revealed that the abominable deed had been performed by the Incendiary Army of Düsseldorf."

66

The entry of the German troops into Liége was marked by tragic incidents. Although the town was completely in the invader's hands, on Aug. 7 German companies suddenly opened fire in the most frequented quarters, where they also set fire to 38 houses, shooting down the inhabitants as they tried to escape. Fifty-two persons perished in the flames or fell by the

Between Aug. 4 and 20, in the province of Liége alone, 1,061 persons were massacred, shot, hanged, or burnt by the German troops; more than 2,000 houses and 4 churches were burnt deliberately and by order, not counting those destroyed by bombardment. In the province of Limburg during the same period 65 persons fell victims to similar cruelties.

Liége having been occupied, the German army advanced up the Meuse Valley, and at the same time invaded the province of Luxemburg. The first French contingents now joined the Belgian troops in the neighbourhood of Dinant, Namur, and Arlon. Everywhere advance-guard fighting was delaying the enemy's progress and every skirmish was followed by cruel reprisals on the civil population.

The siege of Namur began on Aug. 20, and was the signal for more butchery. On the eve of the attack on Namur scenes of incredible savagery were enacted in the towns of Andenne, Seilles, and Landen. Without having received the faintest provocation, for three whole days the German troops in occupation of these places never ceased massacring and burning. More than 250 persons perished. These scenes of horror, accompanied by the burning of over 150 houses, culminated on Aug. 21 in the execution of numbers of men, by order of the military authorities. They were shot en masse, and finished off with the bayonet or the butt-end, or by kicks. The whole canton of Andenne suffered similar horrors; nine persons were murdered by the German soldiers after subjection to horrible tortures.

Other localities suffered as cruelly. At Spontin 130 of the 160 houses that composed the village were burnt and 43 persons were massacred. At Somme-Leuze, Franc-Waret, Leuze-Longchamps, fire and murder reigned. Scarcely had the tragedy of Andenne been finished when the small town of Zamines was the scene of a yet more terrible drama. After skirmishes with Belgian and French advance-posts, the Germans, who had fought pushing a screen of civilians in front of them, made the civil population responsible for their losses. All the men were first shut up in the church, and then massed in a field, and on the word being given by the military commanders they were shot down by machine-guns. Some were finished off afterwards, chiefly by stretcher-bearers of the Red Cross; 383 men perished, about 100 were wounded, only 200 escaped. The town was burnt to the ground. The whole canton was subjected to horrible atrocities; in the neighbouring villages 114 men were killed by German troops and 567 houses burnt.

Just at the time of the fall of Namur, the German military at Dinant organized an appalling demonstration of terrorism. The town had been occupied on Aug. 22 after some hard fighting with French troops. At nightfall on Aug. 23 German soldiers rushed shouting about the streets, and everywhere fires broke out. The church, the town hall, the entire town were soon in flames. The inhabitants, arrested en masse, were either massacred, or else driven into different enclosed places where, after a while, a methodical extermination was commenced. In the presence of their families men were formed into groups and shot; 665 persons were killed, including 75 women and 35 children. This horrible butchery was copied in the neighbouring villages. All of them were partially or completely burnt, any men foundthe inhabitants had taken to the woods-were shot; at Anthére and Surice more than 40 men were executed. In the cantons of Dinant, Walcourt, Florennes and Gedinne 946 persons were put to death; and besides the whole town of Dinant and two entire villages-Outraye and Sorrines-1,732 houses and seven churches were destroyed.

On Aug. 23 the German troops entered Namur. Warned of the massacres by frightened peasants who had come fleeing before the enemy, the inhabitants abstained from any demonstration of feeling. The entry of the victorious army was devoid of incident. Yet suddenly on Aug. 24 a violent fusillade rang out in the streets, to continue all that day and all the next. The bishop, Mgr. Heylen, proceeded to the German headquarters to protest against this useless cruelty. He was arrested. After two days the terror ceased; 75 persons had fallen, 15 of them women and 4 children. The town hall, the communal archives,

and 110 houses had been burnt down. In the villages surrounding Namur, also, the same brutal work had gone on; between Aug. 23 and 26, 53 men were butchered and over 200 houses burnt.

While thus in the province of Namur 1,949 inhabitants were murdered, and more than 3,000 houses systematically burnt (not counting those destroyed by ordinary acts of war), the province of Luxemburg in its turn was suffering martyrdom. From Aug. 11 onward, wherever the enemy appeared in Luxemburg, atrocities followed, those at Rossignol, Arlon, Zuitigny, Ethe, and Latour being sadly notorious. All these massacres were reprisals for engagements with the French forces. After the battles of Aug. 22 wounded soldiers found in the cantons of Virton and Etalle were killed, and the civil population hunted down and decimated. At Bleid 84 French wounded were tortured and then shot. At Latour Prince Oscar of Prussia presided in person over the execution of 71 inhabitants. At Ethe 218 persons were killed. The inhabitants of Houdemont, warned of the fate which awaited them, escaped massacre by flight; 11 of them were found by the Germans and put to death. At Touches the burgomaster was hanged; at Zuitigny 84 men were executed; at Rossignol, after the village had been set on fire, all the men were collected together and driven as far as Arlon, where 165 of the poor wretches were shot in cold blood. During the month of Aug. over 800 inhabitants of this province perished, and over 1,500 houses were deliberately destroyed.

While the German army was dominating the Meuse Valley by the seizure of Namur, it was at the same time working towards the heart of the country to assure a route for the invasion of France. The Belgian army, after its victorious stand at Harlen on Aug. 12, isolated, unsupported, menaced by 11 enemy army corps, was now forced to fall back on Antwerp.

On Aug. 19 the German army entered Louvain. Just as Visé had been burnt to terrorize the Liégeois, and Andenne and Dinant to bring about Namur's submission, so Louvain had to be burnt in order to hold a terrible example up to Brussels. When the German army was in effective occupation of Louvain, menaced with no further trouble, orders were suddenly given to burn the centre of the town. The inhabitants were subjected to cruel mental torture. The men were collected and decimated, 79 being shot in the presence of their wives and children, while 334 others were sent captive to Germany, where they were paraded through the streets of Cologne under the insults and threats of the populace who pelted them with mud and stones. Louvain's cathedral of St. Pierre was devoured by the flames, her ancient university and marvellous library were annihilated, and 1,120 houses were ruined. The suburbs suffered likewise. In that canton 1,717 houses were burnt down, 861 houses pillaged, 226 inhabitants shot, and 653 deported to Germany. Aerschot was reduced to ashes, and 178 of its inhabitants were killed.

Enraged by the opposition they met within the environs of Tirlemont, and by the sorties of the Antwerp garrison, the Germans vented their fury upon the numerous villages of Brabant, 594 inhabitants of which perished in the course of burnings, pillagings, and executions.

On Aug. 20 the German army entered Brussels. The entire Belgian army was massed under the protection of the forts of Antwerp. Sorties were made on Aug. 25 and 26 and Sept. 4; on Sept. 9 a general sortie of all the Belgian forces took place, with the object of diverting pressure from the French army, which was fighting on the Marne. Forced to protect itself from the Belgian army's perpetual attacks on its rear, on Sept. 28 the German army commenced the siege of Antwerp. On Oct. 6, after the destruction of the forts, the Belgian army retreated; and on Oct. 10, having eluded capture by the enemy, it took up position on the Yser.

The siege of Antwerp brought yet more fire and carnage. Over 160 persons in the fortified zone fell victims to the German soldiers. The town of Termonde, where the Belgian army again and again successfully opposed the crossing of the Scheldt by the German troops, was at last taken, and was then burnt to the ground.