for The American Legion Weekly, up to the middle of May 1921 some form of bonus had been granted in 13 states, namely, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York (later declared unconstitutional), North Dakota, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Vermont, Washington, and Wisconsin. The payment provided varied. In several states a lump sum of $100 was awarded. In most cases the veteran received a fixed amount for each month of service (usually $10 or $15) up to a maximum (varying from $120 to $600). Bonus bills had been defeated in 11 states, namely, California, Colorado, Connecticut (relief fund provided, the interest of which is to be used for needy men), Delaware, Indiana, Maryland, Oklahoma, Tennessee, Texas, West Virginia, and Nebraska (relief fund provided, interest to be used for relief). No legislation was contemplated in 14 states, namely, Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Idaho, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Nevada, New Mexico, North Carolina, South Carolina, Utah, Virginia, and Wyoming. In the other states preparations were being made to act upon the question. The American Legion.-While the World War was still in progress there arose spontaneously among the American soldiers a wide-spread desire that with the coming of peace there should be created a permanent organization for perpetuating their feeling of comradeship and its ideals. Active steps toward this end were first taken at a caucus held by a number of service men in Paris March 15-17 1919. This was followed by another caucus held in St. Louis May 8-10 1919, when preliminary organization was effected and the name "The American Legion" adopted. Incorporation was secured by an Act of Congress Sept. 16 1919. The first annual convention was held at Minneapolis Nov. 1919. The purpose of the Legion, according to its constitution, is: " To uphold and defend the Constitution of the United States of America; to maintain law and order; to foster and perpetuate a one hundred per cent Americanism; to preserve the memories and incidents of our association in the Great War; to inculcate a sense of individual obligation to the community, state, and nation; to combat autocracy of both the classes and the masses; to make right the master of might; to promote peace and good will on earth; to safeguard and transmit to posterity the principles of justice, freedom, and democracy; to consecrate and sanctify our comradeship by our devotion to mutual helpfulness." The organization is non-sectarian and non-partisan. Any man or woman is eligible to membership who was in the military or naval service of the United States between the dates April 6 1917 and Nov. 11 1918 inclusive; also "all persons who served in the military or naval services of any of the Governments associated with the United States during the World War, provided they were citizens at the time of their enlistment and are again citizens at the time of their application." Exception is made of persons dishonourably discharged from service, as well as persons who refused to perform military duty "on the ground of conscientious or political obligation."

At the head of the Legion are a national commander and five national vice-commanders, elected by the national convention. The active director at headquarters is the national adjutantgeneral. Each state also is organized under a state commander and other officers. The local unit is called a post. On Sept. 30 1921 the number of posts was 10,795, located in every state of the Union and in the District of Columbia, the Philippines, Panama, Cuba and many other countries, including Canada, Mexico, Argentina, and France. The total membership at the same date was about 785,000.

The Legion strongly endorsed the proposed Federal bonus for all ex-service men; and, especially through its National Legislative Committee, was influential in giving publicity to the needs of disabled soldiers and in securing legislation in their behalf. To its efforts, in part at least, were due the enactment of the Sweet bill, providing for the Veterans' Bureau; the Veterans' Hospital bill, appropriating $18,600,000 for building or improving hospitals for ex-service men; the publication of lists of draft evaders in the Congressional Record; the bringing to the United States of the body of an Unknown Soldier" for burial in Arlington National Cemetery; the bestowal of the Congressional Medal of Honor upon the British "Unknown Soldier" buried in Westminster Abbey, and upon the French "Unknown Soldier" buried under the Arc de Triomphe. The official publication is

paid-up membership of 107,345 on Sept. 1 1921. At the national convention of the Legion in 1921 distinct organization was effected, and separate officers and headquarters were chosen.

DE MORGAN, WILLIAM FREND (1839-1917), English novelist (see 8.10), was born in London Nov. 16 1839 and educated at University College school and later at the college itself. He became a student at the Royal Academy in 1859 and in 1864 began the study of stained glass. Six years later he turned to ceramic work and soon became known in artistic circles as a potter, the "De Morgan" tiles being made remarkable by his rediscovery of the secret of some beautiful colours and glazes. But later in life he became even better known to the literary world through his novels, Joseph Vance (1906); Alice for Short (1907); Somehow Good (1908); It Never Can Happen Again (1909); An Affair of Dishonour (1910); A Likely Story (1912); When Ghost meets Ghost (1914), in which the influence of Dickens and of his own earlier family life were conspicuous. He died in London Jan. 15 1917. In 1919 The Old Madhouse was published posthumously. His last but unfinished novel, The Old Man's Youth, was published, with additions by his widow (1921). DENBY, EDWIN (1870- ), American public official, was born at Evansville, Ind., Feb. 18 1870. His father, Charles Denby (d. 1904), was minister to China 1885-98. He was educated in the Evansville schools, went to China with his father in 1885, and two years later entered the Chinese imperial maritime customs service. He returned to America in 1894, graduated from the Law school of the university of Michigan in 1896, was admitted to the bar and thereafter practised in Detroit. On the outbreak of the Spanish-American War in 1898 he entered the navy, and as gunner's mate saw action at Santiago. Later he was a member of the Michigan House of Representatives. From 1905 to 1911 he was a member of the National House of Representatives and was allied with the conservative Republicans. He served as chairman of the House Committee on Naval Affairs. When America entered the World War in 1917 he enlisted at the age of 47 as a private in the Marine Corps and was sent to the training station on Paris I., S.C. He was advanced to corporal and sergeant and was highly successful in training recruits. In Jan. 1918 he was commissioned secondlieutenant and passing through the various stages, before the end of the year had been promoted major. After the close of the war he was appointed probation officer of the Detroit Municipal Courts. In 1921 he was appointed Secretary of the Navy.

DENIKIN, ANTON (1872- ), Russian general, was of humble descent and held democratic views. After going through the usual military training and service he joined the Russian general staff, and in the earlier period of the World War he rose to the rank of lieutenant-general and to the command of a division on the Danube front. During the Russian revolution he followed Kornilov, and was for some time chief of his staff. He was arrested with Kornilov and imprisoned in Bykova. They escaped together and fled to the Caucasian shore of the Black Sea. There he joined Alexeyev, who was forming a small army of volunteers, chiefly composed of officers. On Kornilov's death (March 31 1918) he became the military commander of the army, while Gen. Alexeyev held power as "Supreme Leader " of the Government and organized recruiting and supplies. They collected the army on the southern border of the Don region, at Metchetinskaya, and established coöperation with a Caucasian detachment, led by Erdeli, with the Don Cossacks under Krasnov, and some 2,000 men who had marched right through the southern steppes under Drozdovsky. By June the army counted some 12,000 men and was able to attempt the reconquest of the Kubañ territory. Things had changed considerably since March, when Kornilov's invasion came to a standstill in front of Ekaterinodar. The Kubañ Cossacks had had time to ascertain the true character of Bolshevik occupation, and the volunteers moved down the Rostov-Vladikavkaz line and the Black Sea line from Tikhoryetzkaya to Novorossisk The Reds, in spite of their numerical superiority, melted before this advance and one stanitsa (camp settlement) after the other joined the invaders. On Aug. 5

and practically all the resources of the prosperous country were henceforward at the service of the volunteers. By the middle of Sept. the army had increased to 60,000 men. The Germans, whose garrisons had advanced to Rostov at the mouth of the Don, did not look on that extension with friendly eyes; they did their best to disintegrate the volunteer fighting forces, and at the same time tried to induce Alexeyev and Denikin to accept a condition of vassalage, similar to that which had been submitted to them by the Don Ataman, Krasnov. But nothing of the kind was possible in the case of Alexeyev and Denikin: their whole energy was directed towards a patriotic reconstruction | of Russia, and they declined all overtures from the crafty foe. On Sept. 25 Alexeyev died after an illness which he had contracted during the World War, but against which he had struggled by sheer devotion to his task, never sparing himself, never relaxing his efforts. It was impossible to replace fully this man, who resembled one of the heroes of antique virtue. Denikin, who had to step into the breach, was not Alexeyev's equal in military genius or in statesmanship, but he was worthy of his predecessor in purity of character and in his sense of duty.

The revolt of Siberia and eastern Russia against the Bolsheviks prevented the latter from concentrating their forces against the dangerous volunteers, and the Germans were at the end of their tether in the struggle with the western Allies, and unable to use their position in Russia to any useful purpose. These favourable circumstances made it possible for Denikin to spread his wings wide. The Don Cossacks joined him, he established communications with Astrakhan and Ural Cossacks and the Orenburg province on the right, while on the left, his lieutenant Schilling moved towards Kiev and Odessa. There was some very heavy fighting in the centre, where Stavropol was taken after a struggle of several days, and 35,000 Reds surrendered or were exterminated. Towards the beginning of 1919 Denikin was master in the S. of Russia, and could begin to organize a base for an attack on the main block of the Soviet Republic. The principal Cossack armies had congregated round the nucleus of the Volunteer army. The latter had unfortunately suffered grievous losses in the ceaseless fights of the Civil War, which it had to conduct in miserable equipment, with hardly any ammunition except that which was taken from the enemy, in hunger and cold; some 30,000 of its best men had fallen, and these could not be replaced either by conscripts, driven in by command, or by the Cossacks, who could fight well when they chose, but who did not always want to do so. The difficulty of the political situation became apparent when the question of an arrangement between the various forces under Denikin was seriously raised. On Nov. 1 Gen. Denikin met the Regional Assembly (Krayevaya Rada) of the Kuban territory. He made a powerful speech in which he said, among other things:

Can there be any peace politics on the Kuban? Will your longsuffering settlement be safe from a new and more cruel invasion of the Bolsheviks when the Red power establishes itself firmly in Moscow, when it throws back by weight of numbers the Volga front, when it presses on the Don from north and east and when it moves towards you?-No! It is time that people should cease to wrangle, to intrigue, to seek precedence. Everything should be sacrificed for the sake of the struggle. Bolshevism must be crushed, Russia must be liberated. Otherwise your well-being will not prosper, you will become the plaything of the enemies of Russia and of the Russian people. . . . There can be no talk of separate armies-the Volunteer army, the Don army, the Kubañ army, the Siberian army. These should be one army-the Russian one, and also one front, one Chief Command, endowed with full power, responsible only to the Russian people, as represented by its future supreme authority."

The speech did not produce the desired effect. It was criticized in the lobbies by separatists and by Socialists, but it was at least conceded to the Commander-in-Chief that a Government should be formed in which ordinary provinces, like Stavropol or the

Black Sea district, should be subjected to an emergency military

régime, while the Kubañ and to some extent the Don should be governed by independent institutions, though maintaining a kind of federal allegiance to the High Command. The Kubañ obtained, in fact, political autonomy, but agreed to place its forces under the command of Gen. Denikin. Yet the Ukrainian

elements of the Rada contrived to send a special mission to Paris, and negotiated there with representatives of the Allies independently of the Russian "Political Council" and of S. D. Sazonov, the Foreign Minister of the South Russian Government.

For the conduct of the Government Gen. Denikin formed a Special Council," which combined legislative and executive functions. It consisted of generals of the headquarters staff and the heads of departments, some 18 or 20 in number (Gens. Dragomirov, Lukomsky, Romanovsky, etc.; the civil members--Neratov, J. P. Shipov, N. Astrov, Stepanov, K. Sokolov, M. M. Fedorov, etc.). Most of the members belonged to the so-called National Centre and to the moderate Right. The Left was represented by four Cadets, of whom, however, two had drifted a good deal to the Right. The weight of authority rested with the generals, but there were long discussions and many compromises. It was attempted to steer a strictly" business course," politically colourless, but the Government did not succeed in achieving popularity. Gen. Denikin regarded this Assembly as a consultative organization, and gave his decision after listening to proposals and discussions. He insisted on keeping military restoration to the fore until the Bolsheviks had been laid low or at least until Moscow had been liberated. No pronouncement was allowed as to the form of Government, but the authority of the old Constituent Assembly, which was attempting to gather power in Ufa and Omsk, was rejected as the product of popular insanity. On the whole the Government was clearly leaning towards the Right, but Denikin was averse to any kind of acts of violence and oppression; his rule was, however, not free from contradictions and lacked political initiative. He fol lowed the current more than he directed it.

His military plans were based on the idea that if he succeeded in driving the Bolsheviks out of the Russian provinces the population would reform behind his lines and set up compact patriotic levies against the hateful usurpers. With this purpose in view he pushed forward rapidly in all directions, and it seemed at first as if events justified his previsions. The Bolsheviks were driven back everywhere by the Volunteers and the Cossacks. When they rallied in the East and made a determined attempt to retake Tsaritsyn and turn the line of the Don they were repulsed and finally routed by Gen. Wrangel's Caucasian army. The Cossacks of Mamontov and Shkuro made raids deep into the lines of the enemy; officers and soldiers of the Red army deserted in thousands to the Whites; the population met Denikin's hosts as liberators with processions and the ringing of bells. Kursk, Kharkov, Voronezh, were occupied, and in July the advance guard reached Orel, some 200 m. from Moscow.

This rapid progress proved deceptive. The armies of liberation did not bring law and order with them. Not only were Commissars and prominent Bolsheviks given short shrift, but officers who had served in the ranks of the Reds and gone over to the Whites were subjected to irksome investigations and delays before obtaining "rehabilitation." The badly equipped and badly supplied troops laid hands on all sorts of goods and stores; it was hard to distinguish between requisition and looting. Such administrators as were introduced by the advancing army were more intent on bettering themselves than on looking after the population; the peasants felt themselves menaced by the revenge of the squires. The people, driven to despair, took to flight, and the more adventurous among them formed " green" bands, which roamed about the country, seized stations, stopped trains, cut off provision columns. The most daring of these brigands, Makhno, made Ekaterinoslav his capital, and nearly overran Rostov in the summer of 1919. The most threatening symptom of all was the lack of union between the various sections of the Whites. The Kuban was preparing for complete independence and negotiating found it necessary to strike hard against the Separatists; the Rada with the Mahommedan mountaineers for a league. Denikin was dissolved; one of the leaders, Kalabukhov, was shot as a traitor, and a new Government was formed from among the supporters of a closer union with the Russian army (Nov. 1919). The "line" Cossacks were favourably disposed, but the coup d'état did not succeed in uprooting the movement for an in

dependent Kubañ republic in the south-west. On the contrary, the Separatists, though forced for a time to conceal their aspirations, were embittered, and resolved to wreck the combination with the Volunteers.

In the meantime the resistance of the Reds stiffened in proportion as the Whites lost the sympathy of the people. Soviet propagandists had no difficulty in rousing the apprehension of the Great Russian peasants against the advance of the "squires"; officers of the Red army became less keen to desert when they ascertained that they would be treated as suspects by Denikin's lieutenants. The relentless discipline re-introduced by Trotsky in the Red army was backed by the action of select bodies of privileged troops-international contingents of Letts, Chinese, Magyars, etc., picked Communist battalions, large bodies of cavalry trained for rapid marches and sudden concentrations against weak points of the line. In the beginning of Nov. Budenny's cavalry corps broke through the White lines at Kupyansk and threatened to cut off the Volunteer army from its base on the Don. The line rolled back and a general retreat set in. Denikin tried to stem the back flow by appointing Wrangel to command the Volunteer army in the place of Mayevsky, who had been indulging in reckless debauchery in Kharkov. But Wrangel was not a magician who could mend the consequences of errors which he had detected and criticized from the beginning. Town after town fell, and there was no hope of support from the Poles, who were by no means inclined to fight for the restoration of Russia. A British political mission headed by Sir Halford Mackinder, M.P., was more concerned with promoting the interests of Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan than in taking up the cause of Russian centralization. In these dire straits Denikin resolved to abandon his former policy in regard to the Cossacks, and summoned a central " Krug" (circle) of the Cossack armiesDon Kubañ, Terek, Astrakhan-with the object of starting a new Government on federal lines. It was agreed that there should be a Legislative Assembly of the Federation, and that Denikin should act only as Chief of the Executive and Commander-inChief. Even this surrender did not help. After a last success of the Volunteer army, which retook Rostov (Feb. 8), the final catastrophe came through a defection of Kubañ Cossacks on the right flank, of which Budenny's cavalry took full advantage. Rostov and Ekaterinodar had to be abandoned. Crowds of refugees gathered in Novorossisk in the first months of 1920; spotted typhus raged among them. The remnants of the Black Sea fleet and foreign ships carried loads of these wretched people to the Prinkipo Is. and to Lemnos, and Denikin himself left for Constantinople.

By way of an epilogue to the drama of discord which had embittered the minds and paralyzed the efforts of the Whites, Denikin's Chief of the Staff, Gen. Romanovsky, was murdered by two officers of the Volunteer army on the steps of the Russian embassy in Constantinople. He was a quiet, industrious man, who had come to recognize that there was no Conservative class in Russia capable of serving as a basis for government. He was therefore in favour of a closer alliance with the Moderate Socialists. This was an unpardonable heresy from the point of view of the Rights, and it was from this side that the shot came which put an end to the life of Denikin's trusty assistant. (P. VI.)

DENIS, MAURICE (1870- ), French painter, was born at Granville, Manche, in 1870. He studied at Julian's Academy and at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. As a student he came under the influence of Paul Sérusier, one of Gauguin's associates at Pont Aven, and became a prominent member of the symboliste group which included also P. Bonnard, K. X. Roussel and E. Vuillard. Inspired mainly by Cézanne and Gauguin, the symbolistes represented a reaction against impressionism, in favour of synthesis and the use of form and colour to express subjective states of mind. Denis was also associated with the Rose Croix group which aimed at substituting an idealist decorative art for the realism of the day. To these influences was added that of Italian quattrocento art, as the result of a visit to Italy in 1894. Denis early turned his art to religious purposes, but classical mythology has also frequently provided him with subjects. His most important work is his mural decorations, which include decorations

toire de Psyche," five panels for M. Morosoff, Moscow (1908); "L'âge d'or," five panels for a staircase of the Prince de Wagram (1912); a frieze for the cupola of the Théâtre des Champs Elysées illustrating in four panels the history of music (1912); decorations and stained glass for the church of St. Paul, Geneva (1917-8); and a decoration for La Chapelle du Souvenir in the church of Gagny (1920). All these works show the influence of quattrocento Italy in the linear character of the design, and the preference for spare, stiff, angular forms, which connect Denis with Puvis de Chavannes. His colour, however, is much more vivid than that painter's, and shows an impressionist palette and method of handling. An artist of great fecundity, Denis has also produced many easel pictures including a "Hommage à Cézanne (1901), somewhat in the manner of that painter; a portrait of Degas; and a long series of religious subjects typified by La Meilleure Part " (1920). He has also illustrated among other books, Paul Verlaine's Sagesse (18911910), The Imitation of Christ (1903), and La Vita Nucva (1908). His frequent contributions on art to the reviews were republished in 1912 in Théorie 1890-1910, which contains much interesting comment on modern art. Denis has chiefly exhibited at the Société Nationale, of which he became full member in 1902, at the Salon des Indépendents, and at the Salon d'Automne. He is represented in the Luxembourg, Paris. In 1910 he was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honour.

DENMARK (see 8.23).-Since the incorporation of North Slesvig (1,496 sq. m.), returned to Denmark in 1920 according to the Treaty of Versailles, the area of Denmark proper is 16,958 sq. miles. About 75% of the area is occupied by cultivated land, about 10% by woods and plantations, while the rest, 15%, is either uncultivated or is used as gardens, building lots, roads, etc. Besides, the Faeroes (540 sq. m.) and Greenland (a little more than 770,000 sq. m.) belong to Denmark.

Population. Since the incorporation of North Slesvig Denmark proper has something over 3,200,000 inhabitants, of whom about 150,000 live in North Slesvig. The Faeroes have 20,000 and Greenland about 13,000 inhabitants. In Denmark proper, apart from Slesvig, the density of pop. is 195 per sq. m. (325 per sq. m. on the islands, 127 in Jutland). One-fifth of the pop. lives in the capital, about another fifth in the provincial towns and about threefifths in the country. The average death-rate in the years 1910-9 was about 13 per thousand, the average birth-rate 25 per thousand, Before the World War the overseas emigration was some 7,000 persons a year. In war-time it fell off, in 1918 to 800, rising again to 3,300 in 1919. The yearly increase of pop. is a little more than 1%, the average percentage of the years 1910-9 being 1.11. On the basis of the statistics of the years 1911-5, the average duration of life has been calculated at 56·2 years for men and 59.3 years for women, while 75 years earlier the figures were 40.9 and 43.5.

Communications.-The total length of roads in 1919 was about 28,000 m., some 4,300 m. being main roads. There were in 1921 about 2,700 m. of railways (Slesvig excepted), of which one-half was under State administration. Motor-cars numbered about 18,000, including about 2,300 taxis and omnibuses, 3,800 commercial vehicles and 12,000 motor-cycles.

Occupations. In 1911 36% of the population were engaged in agriculture (horticulture, forestry and fishing included), about 27% in industry and manufactures and about 17% in commerce and transport. The remaining 20% included those occupied in different trades or in non-productive work, domestic servants, independent persons and those supported by the State. In 1901 some 40% of the population lived by agriculture and 14% by trade, transport, etc. Since 1911 this movement from agriculture towards other occupations has been on the increase.

Legislation. In Sept. 1917 a joint-stock companies Act at last was passed, introducing directors' liability, public registration, protection of the rights of the minority, and public accounts.

Agriculture.-By a law of 1919 land held as feoff or by entail, large estates formerly undivided in succession (Lehn), was made freehold property. Owners must deliver to the Treasury part of the capital value of the estate and-on compensation-hand over to the State one-third of the fields for small holdings. In the same year it was decreed that property still held on lease should become free. hold. This legislation, especially the Acts of 1919, concerning the parcelling-out of lands previously in the possession of the State and of entailed property passing into free possession, was a continuation of the movement, begun by the Cottars' Allotment Act of 1899, towards establishing a number of independent small holdings; in 1899 the idea was two acres and a cow; now legislation aims at 20 ac.; from 1899-1919 some 10,000 new small holdings had been

In the middle of the 19th century the market price per Tönde Hartkorn (Danish unit of land valuation, equal to 18 ac. good soil) was about 2,000 Danish kroner; in the first half of the 'eighties 6,500 kr.; prices declined till towards the close of the century, the price then being 5,200 kr., rising later to about 8,500 kr. in 1913. A constant rise took place during the war, prices in 1918 reaching 12,800 kr. per Tonde Hartkorn. This decline of prices from the middle of the 'eighties to the close of the century, due to the general fall in corn prices, was met by a change of the whole system of agriculture in consequence of which milk, butter, bacon and seed took the place of corn and live stock as chief product. This development continued till the outbreak of the World War. The new industries were based on the use of home supplies together with imported grain and artificial manure, the result being a very considerable output, especially of dairy produce, pork, eggs, cattle and horses. Only a part was marketable in Denmark itself, and a considerable export trade was developed, dairy products, pork and eggs mostly going to England.

During the war, and after the beginning of the ruthless submarine campaign, conditions were altered, the importation of raw materials being very much impeded. The import of corn and forage, including oilcake, amounted before the war to 1,700,000 tons annually, while Denmark's home production was 2,400,000 tons of grain: allowing 500,000 tons for food supplies and for industrial purposes, about 3,300,000 tons remained for forage. During the war the import of rye, maize, and oilcake partly, and in 1918 almost totally, failed; moreover, the harvest in the country was reduced by one-sixth owing to the want of artificial manure. Denmark was compelled to reduce its live stock. The number of cattle was in 1914 2,500,000 and after 1917 two million. Notwithstanding that the best milch cows were least affected by this reduction of stock, the output of milk and subsequently of butter was reduced by about 50%, butter from 117,000,000 kgm. in 1914 to 67,000,000 kgm. in 1918. But while in 1914 about 95,000,000 kgm. were exported, in 1918 only 15,000,000 kgm. were sent out of the country. Home consumption of butter was much more than doubled-due to the stoppage of the import of copra, the raw material for margarine. The number of swine, in 1914 about 2 million, almost equalling the number of the population, was in 1917 reduced to 1 million and in 1918 to half a million. This reduction manifested itself in the rapidly decreasing export of pork, from 150,000,000 to 3,000,000 kilograms. The number of hens fell between 1914 and 1918 from 15 million to 9 million, export of eggs being in the same years 450 million and 320 million respectively. The number of horses and sheep was almost undiminished, about 500,000 of each.

After 1918, with the coming of peace, Danish agriculture recovered rapidly, but the production, especially of pork, was still in 1921 less than before the war. The butter and pork production is mainly in the hands of the farmers' own coöperative factories; thus, of the 1,380 Danish butter factories 1,168 are on a cooperative basis and about 90% of the swine killed in Denmark are taken to the cooperative slaughter-houses.

Two important laws relating to agricultural exports were that of May 27 1908, dealing with the control of meat exported from Denmark, and a similar law of April 12 1911, dealing with the control of butter. They were based on section 62 of the British Trade-Marks Act 1905, which enabled Danish farmers to register a common trade-mark as against all other trade-marks in these articles. Thus all exported meat or bacon receives a public trade-mark and a Government stamp showing it to have been passed for export at the control station either as first- or second-class produce. Agricultural goods for export can therefore receive an official trade-mark certifying the quality of the articles. No butter is allowed to be exported that contains over 16% of water, or other preservatives than salt. Industry. Manufactures dependent on the import of coal and raw materials did not develop in Denmark until about the last decade of the 19th century, as the country produces no coal and very little raw material apart from farm products and material for brick- and cement-making. It thus happens that Denmark as a whole is the loser in the years of high prices and so-called prosperity -the raw materials having to be bought abroad at the highest price level-and regains the losses in the years of depression. The rather small-sized factory is typical, but some big factories have been established in connexion with the manufacturing of leather and footwear, cement, margarine, textiles, tobacco, spirits, sugar, beer, oil, matches, paper, agricultural machines and iron ships. Of the 140,000 persons engaged in factories employing more than 20 working-hands in 1914 more than half belonged to Copenhagen. Most of the larger establishments belong to joint-stock companies. In 1919 there were 994 industrial joint-stock companies with a total capital of 621,000,000 kr., of which three-fourths belonged to companies with a capital exceeding 100,000 kr. each. During the last decades Danish industry has shown an increasing tendency towards centralization. Customs duties were considerably reduced in 1908, but as the; are almost always calculated upon weight, the general advance in prices made the protection left to industry completely ineffective. During the blockade industry had to face difficulties regarding the importation of raw material and coal; but the blockade mainly affected industries producing oils and margarine, which were practically at a standstill in 1918. The

failure of the coal supplies was met with the strictest economy in consumption and partially made up for by an energetic utilization of the native fuels woods, peat and brown coal. In spite of heavy difficulties, Danish industry was to a large extent able to supply the demands of the home market.

On the whole the war period must be said to have been economically favourable to the neutrals, as appears from the formation of a number of new industrial concerns and the extension of many of those already in existence, and the fact that between 1914 and 1920 the number of companies increased by 50% and their capital by 150%. Industrial profits were largely invested in extensions and improvements which could not be turned to full account during the post-war depression. The following table shows the total number of persons, the number of skilled workers, and the horse-power of prime movers concerned in the principal industries in the year 1914:

Shipping. At the close of 1913 Denmark's mercantile marine counted-apart from vessels of four-ton register or less-1.970 sailing vessels with a joint tonnage of about 90,000 tons register, 941 motor vessels of 30,000 tons register and 642 steamers of 420,000 tons register. At the close of 1919 the respective figures were 1,584 sailing vessels of 103,000 tons register, 1,465 motor vessels of 89,000 tons register, 514 steamers of 332,000 tons register. The number of Danish steamers sunk by submarines, torpedoes and mines was 147, representing a tonnage of 229,000 tons register in gross. The gross freight carried in Danish ships-excluding home coast trafficamounted in 1913 to 110 million kr. and in 1919 to 445 million kroner. The average dividend on steamship shares was in 1919 70%. From 1916-20 foreign-going shipping of the country was controlled by a Freight Board, elected by the shipowners themselves. Rather generous maximum rates were fixed for the supplies of the country. Owners were bound to employ their ships according to the instructions of the board. In July 1917 an arrangement was made according to which all Danish owners put tonnage at the dis posal of the Freight Board for the coal supply from the United Kingdom at a fixed rate and quantity.

Commerce.-The total imports and exports from 1912-20 were as follows:

Thus it appears that the excess of imports over exports was in the years preceding the war about 130,000,000 kr., while in the first four war-years export and import were almost equal. Yet in 1914. on account of hidden exports," the trade balance was actuaily favourable. In 1918 the balance was 200,000,000 kr., and in 1919 and 1920 it averaged 1,500 million kr. against Denmark. In the years 1914-8 the position was favourable, partly owing to the con sumption of stocks and the selling-out of assets, such as the stock of domestic animals, and partly owing to the profits of shipping. It is only natural that the commercial and therefore the financial balance after the war should present a somewhat different aspect. Also it must be borne in mind that some of the war-time prots were invested in extensive purchases in order to replenish the empty warehouses; also considerable contracts were made with a view to subsequent exportation to the Baltic states, a possibility which, however, had not been realized in 1921, and involved many individ ual concerns in heavy losses. A comparison of the value of Danish imports for home consumption in 1913 and 1918, the last of the war years, is as follows:-

The chief articles of export were the more or less manufactured agricultural products. But between 1913 and 1918 this export was so much reduced that, notwithstanding the great advance in prices, the total value declined. After the Armistice the export of farm products increased. The value of manufactured products and eggs exported was in 1920 about 920 million kr. and of live animals about 110 million kr. The butter export rose in 1920 to 75,000,000 kgm. and the pork export to 45,000,000 kilogrammes. The trade with foreign countries in 1913, 1917 and 1918 was as follows:

The export of home-made articles to the United Kingdom in 1913 was 398 million kr., of which butter (180 million kr.), pork (160 million kr.) and eggs (31 million kr.) made up 371 million kr., or more than 90% of the total. Exports to Germany were in 1913 valued at 159,000,000 kr., cattle and meat 65,000,000 kr., and hides 10,000,000 kroner. Before the war Denmark did most of its business with England and Germany, but during the war much business was done with the Scandinavian countries, especially with Sweden. A considerable part of the foreign trade in war-time was conducted by agreements between the countries concerned as to desirable interchanges of supplies. After the war foreign trade partly returned to pre-war lines. The import and export of raw materials and agricultural produce is largely conducted through the farmers' own cooperative organizations. During the war only a limited quantity of goods was admitted from England and America. Agreements to that effect were made with the United Kingdom in Nov. 1915 and with the United States in Sept. 1918, negotiations being conducted between the respective Governments and the Danish commercial and industrial organizations, Grosserersocietets Komitë" and "Industriraadet." These organizations also distributed the imported quantities among such Danish firms as had hitherto been importing or using the articles in question. The export of agricultural produce is mainly conducted through Esbjerg or Copenhagen. Copenhagen is by far the most important commer

cial city. A part of the retail trade is in the hands of the peasants' own cooperative societies.

Economic Legislation During the War.-Immediately upon the outbreak of the war, on Aug. 7 1914, the Government was authorized to take measures to ensure supplies and to prevent an unfair rise in prices. A special committee was appointed for the regulation of prices and supply of necessaries of life and of other articles, and export was either prohibited or required a licence. For such articles as butter, pork, etc., the object of control was not merely to ensure the supply of the home market but quite as much the control and regulation of the export trade.

The special committee commenced immediately to forbid the use of rye and wheat for forage. Till that time home-grown grain had been largely used for feeding swine, horses, etc., bread being baked from imported corn, the supply of which completely ceased. In the winter of 1916 the use of sugar and in 1917 of potatoes for forage was prohibited. Licences for potatoes were, however, always granted when supplies for human requirements were sufficient. Maximum prices for home-grown rye and wheat were fixed about Christmas 1914. In May 1915 maximum prices followed for swine and pork. By order in council of Nov. 27 1916 it was notified that any advance in the prices of food decided on by mercantile unions or firms holding monopolies must be notified to and sanctioned by the special committee. On Jan. 31 1917 maximum prices were fixed for potatoes. Sugar production and prices were also placed under observation and control.

Thus Denmark had the distribution of commodities and maximum prices, especially of farm produce of importance to the home market, well under control before the blockade in its severest form took effect. Immediately upon the beginning of the blockade a general decree made it punishable for commerce to raise the percentage of profits above the level of 1914. On May 19 1917 orders were issued to prevent the enhancement of prices of commodities as a result of their having passed through more hands than necessary and customary (the so-called "chain-commerce "). The existing maximum prices were retained and new ones were fixed for a constantly increasing number of commodities. In the spring of 1916 the State had already taken possession of the corn harvest, but at the beginning of the blockade it took the sole control of the trade through the Board of Food Control, established in 1917. Before Feb. 1 1917 only sugar had been rationed but had not been materially reduced, home production almost equalling consumption. Grain was rationed in the spring of 1917 and pork in the autumn of 1917. Owing to the increasing scarcity similar measures were taken later with regard to other articles. The scarcity of fats made it necessary to introduce butter, margarine, fuels, illuminants, benzine, coffee, tea, rice and special regulations for the soap industry. At the same time maximum prices were fixed for the articles in question. Several other branches of industry were also put under control. After the war, imports having gradually reached their former level, these rules and regulations were discarded. In the spring of 1921 only a very few were left, such as regulations and maximum prices for bread and sugar and certain regulations of the beer and spirit industries. To ensure thorough economy in the production of spirits the respective concerns formed a combine. These measures for controlling prices were taken after consultation with the different trades.

Taxation and Public Finance.-The former basis of taxation of landed property in Denmark was the assessment of Hartkorn which was based on the quality of the land and had remained unaltered since 1844. For other property there was a variety of taxes of old standing. A law of 1903 introduced a new general assessment of all estates and property. Land rent was based on periodical valuations ("selling value"). A general income and property tax of a progressive per-cent. rate increasing in amount almost every year, and at the same time made more progressive, was introduced in the same year. The indirect taxes are the customs duties and the inland taxation of industry and trade. The tariff of 1863 was moderate but became heavier than was intended because of falling prices; and in 1908 it was revised, all necessaries of life, raw materials and agricultural produce being relieved of duty; protective duties were made small and duties on tobacco and spirits relatively high. Objects of taxation giving the best return are beer, spirits, tobacco and sugar. In the financial year 1913-4 the revenues of the Danish State amounted to 124 million kroner. Of these 101 million kr. were raised by taxation, 28 million kr. by direct and 73 million kr. by indirect taxes. The war occasioned an increase of taxation, and at the same time a change from indirect to direct taxation was effected. The State revenues of the financial year 1919-20 were 601 million kr., of which 575 million were from taxes, 347 million kr. direct, 248 million kr. indirect. Yet the main part, 235 million kr., of the direct taxes were extraordinary taxes. The national debt was in 1914 361 million kr. and in 1920 925 million kroner. The debt of all the municipalities was in 1914 375 million kr. and in 1920 750 million kroner. It must, however, be borne in mind that the value of State and municipal assets had proportionately increased.

Money and Banking. Before 1908 the right of the National Bank to issue bank-notes was based on the same system as the Bank of England, but in that year the quota system was adopted. By legislation of 1915 the bank is required to be in possession of gold to the amount of one-third of the notes in circulation, and for the