(Prepared by George L. Marsh, author of Manual for the Study of English Classics)

HELPS TO STUDY

THE ESSAY-GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Classify all the essays in the volume (or each one that is studied) according to the plan suggested by the editor (p. 5). Can you include everything in one of the three classes? Do you find any essays that combine characteristics of more than one class?

To whose writings was the name "essay" first applied (p. 6)? To which of the classes mentioned above do his essays belong? Who first applied the term "essay" to writings in English (p. 7)? To which class do his essays belong?

Do

What were "characters" (p. 8)? Illustrate your definition by specific reference to the group under this head (pp. 49-58). you find any essays elsewhere in the book related to this class? A specimen of a letter by James Howell, partaking of the nature of the essay (p. 8), may be found in the Lake English Classics edition of Familiar Letters, pages 40-42.

Explain and illustrate the relations of the essay to journalism (pp. 8 ff.).

What is the rank of Lamb as an essayist (p. 12)? On the basis of your reading from him and from other authors represented in this book, discuss the soundness of this estimate.

Under what influence and in what work did essay-writing in America begin (p. 16)? Who has been the most noted American essayist? To which class of essays do his belong?

Name as many publications as you can in which writings of essay character are now appearing, or find specimens in contemporary publications, bring them to class, and discuss their qualities in comparison with masterpieces of the art in this volume.

Different volumes of the Lake English Classics provide means for more detailed study of a number of the authors whose essays are represented by specimens in this book. See the following:

Addison and Steele (pp. 59-89)-numerous essays in The Sir Roger de Coverley Papers and in Selections from The Tatler and The Spectator; discussion in Macaulay's Essay on Addison and Thackeray's English Humorists.

Johnson (pp. 90-98)-discussion in Macaulay's Life of Johnson. Goldsmith (pp. 99-109)-discussion in Irving's Life of Gold

smith, Macaulay's Essay on Goldsmith, and Thackeray's English Humorists.

Lamb (pp. 110-165)-Elia (all the essays of the first series). De Quincey (pp. 221-241)—Selections from De Quincey (including "Joan of Arc" and "The English Mail Coach," etc.) and (a separate volume) Revolt of the Tartars. Macaulay (pp. 242-256)—four volumes of specimen essays: Addison and Johnson; Milton and Addison; Clive and Hastings; Goldsmith, Frederic the Great, and Madame d'Arblay.

Carlyle (pp. 257-277)—Essay on Burns with Selected Poems by

Burns.

Ruskin (pp. 283-306)-Sesame and Lilies.

Thackeray (pp. 307-315)—English Humorists.

Irving (pp. 360-368)-The Sketch Book.

Emerson (pp. 369-413)-Essays and Addresses (selected). Thoreau (pp. 443-457)—Walden.

ESSAYS IN THIS VOLUME

BACON

Bacon called his essays also "counsels civil and moral," and mentioned the fact that, of all his works, they have been most urrent, for that, as it seems, they come home to men's business nd bosoms."' Find passages that illustrate this description.

Which of the essays read seem most logically and coherently onstructed-most complete as literary compositions? Do you find iny that are notably choppy and disconnected? One of those in his volume is much longer than any of the others. Is this because ts subject is more completely treated-more fully developed? Illusrate whatever differences you find between it and the others. Analyze and outline the logical structure of the essay from Bacon which seems to you best constructed.

From what books and authors does Bacon quote? Any contemporaries? Any Englishmen? Note, in this connection, that he translated his essays into Latin with the expectation that thus, "being in the universal language," they might "last as long as books last."

Examine the beginnings of the essays from Bacon. How many of those read begin with definitions? What seem to be the purposes of the other beginnings? Are they all emphatic, effective? Study similarly the endings of the selected essays.

Do you get from these essays an impression of deep and wide knowledge of human nature on the part of the author? Does he seem to be the sort of person who might have written the Shakespearean plays?

Make a list of the most striking figures of speech that you find. What do you conclude as to Bacon's imagination?

Make a list of phrases or sentences that are much quoted, or aphorisms that seem worth remembering or quoting.

CHARACTERS

Notice the peculiarities of the character writings due to their special purpose-the lack of paragraphing, the monotony of sentence structure, for example. What would you think of the desirability of prolonging such work to any considerable length?

Do you detect any distinct differences among the authors repre sented by "characters''? If you do, specify the differences. Name your favorite author (or "character"), with reasons.

Find in the "characters' passages that apply to universal h nature today. Is any considerable portion of these selectin (pp. 49-58) obsolete in thought?

STEELE AND ADDISON

In what periodical publications did the most important work these two writers appear (pp. 9, 10)? What was the form of the publications? Their relation to the development of the newspa

On the basis of these selections can you distinguish between material or style of Steele and of Addison? If the names of authors of the respective essays were not given, do you think could decide as to authorship? Whose style is the more humor and lively? Whose the more finished and polished?

How does the style of these essays differ from that of the b prose of today? Are there many unusual words? Compare syntax, sentence length, and order with the best present usage. Note (e. g., pp. 60, 61) failure to paragraph according to pr ent principles. Do you see any advantages in the old metho What disadvantages as compared with the present method of pa graphing conversation, particularly?

Apply Addison's tests of true and false humor (pp. 80-84) the humorous essays to be found in this volume. To humore writings of the present.

One of the selections from Addison is to a considerable exter like a short story. What qualities of the artistic short story do it have, and what does it lack? (See Types of the Short Story.

JOHNSON AND GOLDSMITH

What periodical writing did Dr. Johnson do (p. 10)? Where did he fall short of his models? Can you illustrate?

What periodical writing did Goldsmith do (p. 11)? Demonstrat by comparison his greater success in imitating Addison and Steel What devices do you find in The Citizen of the World to mak subject matter and style appropriate to the purported narrator? How far do the two papers on Beau Tibbs (pp. 102-109) ap proach fiction? Is a complete story told or hinted at? What do you think of the characterization?

LAMB

Which of Lamb's essays in this volume partake of the nature of short stories? Is any of them sufficiently complete as a nar rative? Does any of them contain more material than it should have as a story?

Which of the essays are most autobiographical? Sum up the facts you learn as to Lamb's life from these essays. What do you learn of his sister and his relations to her?

One of the selections is notable for effects of pathos. How de you find these effects secured? Is the pathos quiet and natural. or self-conscious and exaggerated?

Study the humor in these essays. Which do you consider most morous? Is the humor mainly in thought, in style, or how is it eured?

Point out a number of illustrations of Lamb's fondness for the aint prose writers of the seventeenth century, both in allusions them and in imitation of their style.

Do you find rigidity of logical structure in any of the essays ad? On the other hand, do you find any incoherence or lack clearness in the order? Outline one of the essays from Lamb. Study Lamb's sentence structure. Note ways in which ease ad variety are secured. Do you find over-long sentences; sentences ainly lacking unity; sentences you have difficulty in following? E you find any such, can you account for or defend them? Pick out the unusual words, or words used in an unusual way, 1 any page. Try substituting other words, and note if your bstitute in any case seems as effective as the original.

Do you find any serious satire back of the whimsicalities of "A hapter on Ears" (pp. 110-118)? Can anything Lamb says be pplied with reason to any music of today?

Would not the effect of "Dream-Children" (pp. 124-129) be imroved if it were paragraphed according to present-day principles? Pick out portions of the "Preface" (pp. 162-165) that apply Lamb's personality or to his style.

HAZLITT

Find examples of the differences between Hazlitt and Lamb that re mentioned on page 13. Add other differences that you note. How do Hazlitt's essays compare with Lamb's in the matter of rganization; of sentence structure; of choice of words?

Note in Stevenson's "Walking Tours" the references to Hazitt's On Going a Journey" (pp. 342, 343, 344, 347). Would you gree with Stevenson's estimate of Hazlitt?

What, on the whole, was Hazlitt's estimate of Scott (pp. 19097)? To what extent do you find it justified?

Sum up the characterizations of Coleridge and Lamb that you nd in "On the Conversation of Authors" (especially pp. 202-208).

HUNT

Discuss the fitness of Carlyle's comment on "The Graces and Anxieties of Pig-Driving" (p. 209).

What do the literary allusions of "Spring and Daisies' indieate as to Hunt's literary likings?

DE QUINCEY

In connection with the first selection (pp. 221-227) see the Lake Classics edition of Macbeth and the Introduction, Notes, and Helps to Study therein. What do you think of De Quincey's idea?

De Quincey's style is famous for breadth and accuracy of vocabulary, rhythm and harmony of sentence structure, and imagination. Cite examples of these qualities.

Besides his merits as above, De Quincey had marked faults— wordiness, a tendency to digress from his subject, an excess of parenthetical expressions or other modifiers, and straining for effect when he would be humorous. Do you find examples of any of these faults in the selections?

MACAULAY

How is Macaulay justified, in an essay on Milton, in dealing at such length with the Puritans, the Royalists-all the parties of the time? See especially page 250.

What was Macaulay's opinion of Milton's prose (p. 254)? Characterize the conclusion of the essay. Why does Macaulay reserve for the end what he says of Milton's personality?

CARLYLE

What are the main points of Carlyle's comparison of Dante and Shakespeare? With this it may be interesting to take up a comparison of Milton and Dante by Macaulay in his essay on Milton.

What does Carlyle consider the most essential gift of a true poet (p. 262)? The same idea is developed also in his essay on Burns. Sum up Carlyle's total estimate of Shakespeare.

What, in essence, was Carlyle's "gospel of work' (pp. 273-77) ? Do you consider it useful today? Answer with reasons.

NEWMAN

Work out the comparison suggested in the note on page 278. Note the greater ease and flexibility of Newman's style.

Select the most quotable bits in the extracts from Newman.

RUSKIN

Do you find ways in which the lectures making up such books as Sesame and Lilies, The Crown of Wild Olive, and other works by Ruskin differ so distinctly from essays in this volume that they cannot be called essays?

List the main points of contrast between St. Mark's and an English cathedral (pp. 284-89). What remarkable qualities of descriptive prose do you find in this selection?

What were the grounds of Ruskin's contention against the use of machinery, coal, etc.? How would you answer his arguments?

THACKERAY

What indications of personality do you find in the selection on pages 307-315?

ARNOLD

Just what does Arnold mean by culture (summed up on p. 322) ? How far does he agree with Ruskin in opposition to machinery? What does he mean by "sweetness and light'' (p. 328) ?

Note the closely knit structure of the selection from Arnold; the keeping of his main thoughts before the reader by skillful repetition. Do you find the repetition ever tiresome?