Clinton also took possession of Rhode island, without the loss of a man ; whilst admiral Hopkins, with the American fleet, which had been fitted out with much care, was obliged to run up the river Providence, as far as the vessels would float. A second expedition to Canada terminated in a manner no less disastrous than the first. The term for which the provincial soldiers had enlisted was expired, and they daily left the army in great numbers; so that of 30,000 men who opposed general Howe at New York, scarcely 3000 could now be mustered; and Lee, one of the most expert among the American generals, was made prisoner. But, before the end of the campaign, Washington obtained a victory over a body of Hessians posted not far from Philadelphia, which, though not of great importance, tended in some measure to reanimate the courage of the dispirited Americans.

In the spring of 1776, every exertion was made to recruit the patriot army, and Washington once more saw himself at the head of a respectable force, consisting of soldiers, not enlisted for one year, but for three years, or during the continuance of the war. With this force he posted himself between the British army and Philadelphia, too strongly to be dislodged; but, on the 11th of September, the American army was attacked and entirely defeated; on the 26th general Howe took possession of Philadelphia, and laid open the navigation from Philadelphia to the sea.

Burgoyne's Expedition.] In the northern provinces, the British arms were not equally sucessful. New England had always been considered not only as the original, but the great supporter of revolutionary principles: the conquest of this part of the country, therefore, was considered as the surest method of checking what was called the American rebellion. To effect this important conquest, general Burgoyne was put at the head of 4000 British troops, and 3000 Germans. With this army he encamped, in June 1777, on the western side of Lake Champlain, where he was joined by a numerous body of Indians, and soon after captured Ticonderago, a fort of great strength, and garrisoned by 6000 men. The Americans retired from Fort George and Fort Edward, to Saratoga, where they were put under the command of general Arnold. Colonel St Leger, who had been sent on an expedition on the Mohawk river, to make a diversion in favour of the main body of the British army, had already laid siege to Fort Stanwise, and general Burgoyne wished to advance towards him, that he might either enclose the Americans between the two parties, or effect a junction with the colonel. But St Leger's Indian allies, intimidated at the report of Arnold's approach with 2000 men, deserted in such numbers as to oblige him likewise to retreat, and Burgoyne found it not only imprudent, but even impossible, to advance a step, till provisions could be procured. At the beginning of October, provisions had become so scarce in the British camp that the soldiers were put on short allowance; meanwhile American volunteers flocked together from every quarter, so that, while Burgoyne could scarcely muster 6000 men, the provincial army amounted to upwards of 16,000. Every part of the British camp was exposed, not only to the grape and rifle-shot of the enemy, but to a perpetual discharge of their artillery. In this dangerous situation, with their provisions daily decreasing, and without the possibility of acquiring more, the British army waited with fortitude till the 13th, when an inventory of provisions was made, and it was found that the whole could not subsist the army, even at short allowance, longer than three days. With much reluctance, therefore, they were obliged to capitulate; but they were to be

allowed a free passage to Britain, on condition of not serving against America during the war. On this occasion the Americans got 35 brass field pieces, 7000 stand of arms, clothing for an equal number of soldiers, with the tents and military chest. Sir Henry Clinton had in the mean time sailed up the Hudson, and, with a very small loss of men, taken from the Americans property to a great amount, and destroyed more which could not be carried off. But, had he relieved the troops under general Burgoyne-which he could easily have done by destroying Gates's stores at Albany-he would have rendered his country a much more essential service.

Treaty with France.] It was not to be supposed that the foes of Britain would view with indifference her contest with her colonies. In February 1778, a treaty was concluded and formally signed between France and the United States of America. Of this treaty the substance was as follows:

I. If Great Britain should, in consequence of this treaty, proceed to hostilities against France, the two nations should mutually assist each other. II. The main end of the treaty was in an effectual manner to maintain the independence of America.

III. Should those places of North America still subject to Britain be reduced by the colonies, they should be confederated with them, or subjected to their jurisdiction.

IV. Should any of the West India islands be reduced by France, they should be deemed its property.

V. No formal treaty with Great Britain should be concluded either by France or America without the consent of each other; and it was mutually engaged that they should not lay down their arms till the independence of the States had been formally acknowledged.

VI. The contracting parties mutually agreed to invite those powers that had received injuries from Great Britain to join the common cause.

VII. The United States guaranteed to France all the possessions in the West Indies which she should conquer; and France in her turn guaranteed the absolute independency of the States, and their supreme authority over every country they possessed, or might acquire during the war.

The Americans did not confine their negotiations to France. They had agents in the courts of Madrid, Vienna, and Berlin, endeavouring to obtain from them, if possible, assistance, or at least an acknowledgment of their independence. Clinton now resolved to evacuate Philadelphia, probably because the retention of it employed a great number of troops, without yielding any adequate advantage. Washington no sooner learned his intentions, than he resolved to attack him on his march; but the British army marched onwards without any successful interruption, till they were taken aboard the fleet which conveyed them to New York. In the mean time count D'Estaing had sailed from Toulon, on the 14th of April, with 12 ships of the line and a number of large frigates, and arrived on the coast of Virginia in the beginning of July, while the British fleet was employed in conveying Clinton's forces, after their evacuation of Philadelphia, from Sandy Hook to New York. The British admiral had likewise 12 ships of the line, with a few frigates; but though they were all of a force much inferior to those commanded by D'Estaing, the French admiral lay off Sandy Hook till the 22d of July, entirely inactive. In conjunction with the Americans, he next made an attempt on Rhode island, which signally failed.

Operations in the Southern States.] The southern colonies had hitherto been the seat of only occasional expeditions; but an attempt by the Americans to overrun West Florida called the attention of the British to that quarter, and it was immediately resolved to fit out an expedition against Georgia. For this purpose commodore Hyde Parker was despatched with a fleet; colonel Campbell was to command the land-forces; and, with him, general Prevost, who commanded in East Florida, was to co-operate. The British arrived on the coast in December, and in 10 days the whole province was subjected. The Spaniards, in June 1779, having joined the confederacy against Britain, invaded West Florida; and, as it was almost destitute of troops, became masters of the whole with little opposition.

The British forces had, for some time, been posted on the islands in the neighbourhood of Charleston, waiting for such reinforcements and artillery as might enable them to attack that city. At length general Clinton embarked a body of troops, and sailed to prosecute the attack. The fleet passed Charleston bar on the 20th of March, and the land-forces took possession of Charleston neck on the 29th. After sustaining a siege of a month it capitulated, and Clinton, early in June, returned to New York. Besides the losses sustained by the Americans in war, they were now much embarrassed in their finances. Congress was composed of persons who knew little of that intricate part of their business. Their exigencies forced them to issue bills of credit, but their executive wanted that vigour which was necessary to procure sums for the purpose of redeeming those bills. They were consequently daily depreciating in value; and between years 1777 and 1780, they had fallen so low, that their real value was only about one-fortieth of the sum at which they were nominally rated. The embarrassment produced by such a circumstance was severely felt by such as were engaged in military services; but amidst all these embarrassments, the anniversary of independence was, in 1780, celebrated at Philadelphia, with much solemnity.

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A body of French troops, consisting of 6000 men, commanded by M. Ternay, was, on the 10th of July, landed on Rhode island; but the principal scene of action was now transferred to the southern provinces. Earl Cornwallis-to whom the command of the British troops in these quarters had been delegated by Clinton, on the 15th of August 1780-defeated general Gates, and was joined by many of the inhabitants of South Carolina, who remained attached to the royal cause. On the 11th of January put his troops in motion to penetrate into North Carolina; but though successful in every engagement, repeated conflicts had so diminished his numbers, that re-enforcements were necessary to enable him to keep the field with advantage. Trusting, therefore, to the efforts of the other British generals in North America, to forward him what was necessary to his success, he took possession of the posts of York-town and Gloucester, in Virginia, where he fortified himself in the best manner he could. To surround this part of the British army, the Americans crowded from every quarter, and were joined by a considerable number of French troops under the count de Rochambeau. Clinton no sooner was relieved from his apprehensions for New York, than he set out immediately with 7000 men, in order, if possible, to assist Cornwallis. He arrived at the entrance to Chesapeak bay on the 24th of October, but was informed that Cornwallis had surrendered on the 19th, after a defence which, though not equal in splendour, was perhaps conducted by no less skill, perseverance, and

courage, than had been exemplified in the acquisition of his former victories. The British army, when it surrendered, consisted of upwards of 6000 men, but of these many were unfit for duty. The army to which it surrendered consisted of 13,000 Americans, besides a large body of French, with a considerable train of artillery. The troops were, by the articles of capitulation, to be prisoners to the United States, and the seamen to the king of France. A considerable unmber of cannon, and some military stores, fell into the hands of the Americans.

Treaty of Peace.] The surrender of Cornwallis convinced his countrymen, that if the conquest of America was possible, it was likely to cost more than the contest merited. They were now willing, therefore, to abandon a struggle, in which there was so much to lose and so little to gain. The European powers, who had espoused the cause of American independence, were likewise willing to accede to terms of pacification. After the surrender of Cornwallis, nothing of any importance was transacted in America. Sir Guy Carleton arrived at New York, on the 5th of May, 1782, and informed general Washington, that, along with admiral Digby, be was com missioned to treat of peace with the Americans; and that, to convince them of the sincerity of his intentions, the independence of the states was admitted as a preliminary article. When this intimation was given to congress, they were at first apprehensive that the British intended to draw them into a treaty separate from their allies the French,-a measure to which they declared themselves unwilling to accede. In the meantime, however, negotiations were conducting in France for the reconciliation of all the belligerent powers; and on the 30th of November, provisional articles of peace were signed, in which his Britannic majesty acknowledged the colonies to be free, sovereign, and independent states. The indepen dence of the United States was acknowledged, by Holland, in April, 1782; by Sweden, in February, 1783; by Spain, in March, and by Russia, in July, 1783.

Thus terminated the American revolutionary war. For the American patriots it "issued prosperously"-to quote one of their own writers, "because it was begun and was conducted under the auspices of private and public virtue. Our liberty," the same writer continues, "did not come to us by accident, nor was it the gift of a few leaders, but its seeds were town plentifully in the minds of the whole people. It was rooted in the conscience and reason of the nation. It was the growth of deliberate convictions and generous principles liberally diffused. We had no Paris,—no metropolis, which a few leaders swayed, and which sent forth its influences, like a mighty heart,' through dependent and subservient provinces. The country was all heart. The living principle pervaded the community, and every village added strength to the solemn purpose of being free."

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Articles of Confederation.] The Americans, during the war, had agreed to certain articles of confederation, which were to form the bases of their general government. It could scarcely be expected that these should not contain numerous imperfections. They were framed by men acquainted perhaps with the petty transactions of single colonies, but strangers to the management of a great nation. These imperfections were felt during the war; but the state of the infant government was, at that time, such as not to admit of nice legislation. When peace was established, various modifications of the existing articles of confederacy seemed necessary, and were loudly demanded by the people. It appeared highly necessary that some constitutional form should be adopted, by which both the rulers

and the ruled might know the extent of their powers and privileges. In particular, the necessity of a more energetic executive soon became visible. During the war, the love of independence, which generally prevailed, had influenced the separate states willingly to contribute their proportions of men and money for the common defence; but when the sense of danger was removed with the presence of an enemy, the states became at first remiss, and were afterwards almost totally deficient in the payment of such sums as were necessary to discharge the interest of the national debt, and to answer the purposes of government. Accordingly, after much discussion, and violent opposition from different parties, that constitution was adopted which shall be afterwards particularized, and Washington was chosen the first president of the United States. The following table shows, at one view, the date of the ratifications of the several states, and the majority that appeared in favour of this ratification:

The vast quantity of paper-money which had been issued during the struggle for independence was now productive of many mischiefs. Public credit was almost entirely annihilated; and the evil was aggravated by the nefarious speculations, not of individuals only, but of states. The proceedings of congress, too, in many cases, gave much offence to the people; and in 1786, the discontented party in Massachusetts broke out into actual rebellion, in consequence of the imposition of certain taxes necessary to the discharge of their share of the interest of the national debt. The long wars in Europe, consequent on the French revolution, proved of immense advantage to the United States, by throwing into their hands a great part of the carrying trade of the belligerent powers. If we except, however, frequent wars with the Indians, generally waged on the most flimsy pretexts, and for the purpose of driving them from their grounds,-the purchase of Louisiana from France, and the unprincipled attack upon the Floridas, at the moment when the Spanish cortes was struggling for national independence against the power of France,-little of political importance occurred in the history of America, till the period of the late rupture between it and this country. For many years previous to this rupture, the relations between Great Britain and the United States of America, exhibited a very singular aspect. The nations were not, indeed, in a state of open war with each other; but the conflict of opposite pretensions, the angry discussion of many intricate questions of international law, the charges and recriminations which had for a series of years formed the only subject of their diplomatic intercourse, had diffused over both countries a strong and ever-waking spirit of distrust and animosity.

War with Britain.] The event so long anticipated at last arrived;