On the Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical Condition of Man

(Έχει δὲ καὶ ἡ φώκη ἐσχισμένην τὴν γλῶτταν. p. 48.) It may however be presumed that, in these, as in many other instances, not only of this but of many other of his works, the text has been vitiated or interpolated. Indeed some of the opinions expressed in the work are so opposed to the acknowledged physiological acuteness of its author, that they cannot be consistently admitted to have originated with him: and such, assuredly, is the solution offered in explanation of the physical phenomenon to which allusion is made in the proverb, ἀεὶ Λιβύη φέρει τι Kanov: respecting which he says "that, in conse

quence of the want of rain in Libya, animals "of all kinds congregate wherever there is "water; and that, being rendered tame by "thirst, all those individuals which, though "of different species, are nearly of the same size, and which go with young for nearly the "same period, breed together and produce new “ forms.” (Πολυμορφότατα δὲ (τὰ ζῷα) ἐν τῇ Λιβύῃ—διὰ γὰρ τὴν ἀνομβρίαν μίσγεσθαι δοκεῖ ἀπαντῶντα πρὸς τὰ ὑδάτια, καὶ τὰ μὴ ὁμόφυλα, καὶ ἐκφέρειν ὧν οἱ χρόνοι οἱ τῆς κυήσεως οἱ αὐτοὶ καὶ τὰ μεγέθη μὴ πολὺ ἀπ' ἀλλήλων· πρὸς ἄλληλα δὲ πραΰνεται διὰ τὴν τοῦ ποτοῦ χρείαν. p. 248.)

With reference to animal life in general, Aristotle notices the gradual advances made by nature from the state of inanimate matter to that of living beings; whence there arises a difficulty in ascertaining the common boundary

of the two divisions. And he then observes that, in the scale of material existence, plants immediately succeed to lifeless forms of matter; and that although among plants the degree of the living power is "various, some being indued “with a greater portion of it than others; yet, "considered collectively, plants represent as it were a middle term between animals and all "other bodies; appearing as indued with life, "in comparison with all other forms of matter, "but devoid of life in comparison with animals. "The change from the vegetable to the animal "nature is as gradual, as from inanimate to "vegetable matter: for there are some marine

productions, of which it is difficult to affirm "whether they are animal or vegetable; since they permanently adhere to the spot where they are found, and cannot be separated from "it without perishing; and they manifest very obscure, if any, signs of sensation. Indeed the "whole class of testaceous animals can scarcely "be considered as superior to plants, when com"pared with those animals which are indued "with the power of moving from place to

place.” (Οὕτω δ ̓ ἐκ τῶν ἀψύχων εἰς τὰ ζῷα μεταβαίνει κατὰ μικρὸν ἡ φύσις, ὥστε τῇ συνεχείᾳ λανθάνειν τὸ μεθόριον αὐ τῶν καὶ τὸ μέσον ποτέρων ἐστίν· μετὰ γὰρ τὸ τῶν ἀψύχων γένος τὸ τῶν φυτῶν πρῶτόν ἐστιν· καὶ τούτων ἕτερον πρὸς ἕτερον διαφέρει τῷ μᾶλλον δοκεῖν μετέχειν ζωῆς, ὅλον δὲ τὸ γένος πρὸς μὲν τἆλλα σώματα φαίνεται σχεδὸν ὥσπερ ἔμψυχον, πρὸς

δὲ τὸ τῶν ζῴων ἄψυχον. ἡ δὲ μετάβασις ἐξ αὐτῶν εἰς τὰ ζῷα συνεχής ἐστιν ἔνια γὰρ τῶν ἐν τῇ θαλάττῃ διαπορήσειεν ἄν τις πότερον ζῷόν ἐστιν ἢ φυτόν· προσπέφυκε γὰρ, καὶ χωριζό μενα πολλὰ διαφθείρεται τῶν τοιούτων—ὅλως δὲ πᾶν τὸ γένος τὸ τῶν ὀστρακοδέρμων φυτοῖς ἔοικε πρὸς τὰ πορευτικὰ τῶν ζῴων. καὶ περὶ αἰσθήσεως, τὰ μὲν αὐτῶν οὐδὲ ἓν σημαίνεται. p. 212, 213.)

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Again, if we regard the substance of the “ lower species of marine bodies, though in "some instances, as in sea-nettles, it approaches "to the character of flesh; in others, as in

sponge, it closely resembles a vegetable mat"ter. And, lastly, as different bodies appear “ to partake, in different degrees, of life itself ; "so do they differ with respect to the degrees " of activity in the functions of life. Plants, for instance, seem to be incapable of effecting “ much beyond their individual nutrition, and " the continuation of their species: and the "same observation holds with respect to the "lowest species of animals. By the addition of sensibility in different degrees, the pleasure "and activity of life are increased; first in the gratification arising from mutual intercourse; “ and further, in the natural affection which "the parent feels for its offspring, and in the “ care of providing food for it.” (Ἡ δὲ τοῦ σώματος ἐνίων σαρκώδης ἐστὶ φύσις, οἷον τά τε καλούμενα τήθυα καὶ τὸ τῶν ἀκαληφῶν γένος· ὁ δὲ σπόγγος παντελῶς ἔοικε τοῖς φυτοῖς. ἀεὶ δὲ κατὰ μικρὰν διαφορὰν ἕτερα πρὸ ἑτέρων ἤδη φαίνεται

μᾶλλον ζωὴν ἔχοντα καὶ κίνησιν. καὶ κατὰ τὰς τοῦ βίου δὲ πράξεις τὸν αὐτὸν ἔχει τρόπον. τῶν τε γὰρ φυτῶν ἔργον οὐδὲν ἄλλο φαίνεται πλὴν οἷον αὐτὸ ποιῆσαι πάλιν ἕτερον, ὅσα γίνεται διὰ σπέρματος· ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ τῶν ζῴων ἐνίων παρὰ τὴν γένεσιν οὐδὲν ἔστιν ἄλλο λαβεῖν ἔργον—προσούσης δ' αἰσθήσεως ἤδη, περί τε τὴν ὀχείαν διὰ τὴν ἡδονὴν διαφέρουσιν αὐτῶν οἱ βίοι, καὶ περὶ τοὺς τόκους καὶ τὰς ἐκτροφὰς τῶν τέκνων. p. 213.) “ Some animals, then, merely extend their species, after the manner of plants, at stated seasons; and take no care of the individuals produced by them. And even of those ani"mals which provide nourishment for their offspring, the greater number exercise their care " for a definite period only; that is, till their young are capable of providing for them“selves: after which, they forsake or have no “ further communication with them. Some in“deed, apparently indued with a higher degree “ of intelligence, enter into a social communion, “ and establish a kind of polity with their offspring.” (Τὰ μὲν οὖν ἁπλῶς, ὥσπερ φυτὰ, κατὰ τὰς ὥρας ἀποτελεῖ τὴν οἰκείαν γένεσιν· τὰ δὲ καὶ περὶ τὰς τροφὰς ἐκπονεῖται τῶν τέκνων, ὅταν δ ̓ ἀποτελέσῃ, χωρίζονται καὶ κοινωνιάν οὐδεμίαν ἔτι ποιοῦνται· τὰ δὲ συνετώτερα καὶ κοινώνοῦντα μνήμης ἐπὶ πλέον καὶ πολιτικώτερον χρῶνται τοῖς ἀπογόνοις. p. 213.) And he makes a distinction in another part of his treatise between such animals, and those which are simply gregarious; the former being characterised by the disposition to contribute collectively to the completion of

some one work; as man, the bee, the ant, &c. (πολιτικὰ δ ̓ ἐστὶν ὧν ἕν τι καὶ κοινὸν γίνεται πάντων τὸ ἔργον· ὅπερ οὐ πάντα ποιεῖ τὰ ἀγελαῖα. ἔστι δὲ τοιοῦτον ἄνθρωπος, μέλιττα, σφήξ, μύρμηξ. p. 4.)

With the exception of the opinion that inanimate matter graduates into life, nothing advanced by Aristotle in the foregoing observations, if considered in the light of a general statement, is contradicted or set aside by our present knowledge. For no opinion perhaps is more prevalent, among those who are capable of fairly investigating the characters of natural objects and phenomena, than that there are gradations of excellence in the various forms of matter; although the limits of distinction are often obscure. Who, for instance, that has compared the respective structures and qualities of the bodies, can doubt that the most splendid mineral indicates, humanly speaking, an infinitely less effort of creative and superintending power than the most simple vegetable? In the mineral we find a perfect similarity, or rather sameness, of character, pervading all the integrant particles of the mass; the order of their union being the result of a mere external force, which, having once brought them together, ceases to have any further effect. In the vegetable we find a most curiously arranged system of internal tubes or pores, which attract and separate the elementary principles of the soil and of the at

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On the Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical Condition of Man ...