nothing more than a stream of inflammable gas issuing from a crevice, such as is seen in several places in the Apennines."

It is likely enough that the story of the Chimaera in the Iliad (vi. 179) had its origin in this phenomenon. Servius (ad Aen. vi. 288, "flammisque armata Chimaera ") gives a curious explanation of the passage in Virgil. He correctly places the fire on the top of the mountain; but adds, there are lions near it; the middle part of the mountain abounds in goats, and the lower part with serpents; which is obviously an attempt to explain the passage of Homer (comp. Ovid. Met. ix. 647, &c.) Strabo connects the fable of the Chimaera with the mountain of Cragus in Lycia; and he says that there is, not far off, a ravine called Chimaera, which opens into the interior from the sea (p. 665). This is not the Chimaera of Ctesias, which is near Phaselis. [G.L.] CHIMAERA (Xíμa‹pa: Khimára), a town of Epeirus in the district Chaonia, now gives its name to the Acroceraunian mountains, at the foot of which it stands. At Khimára may be seen several pieces of Hellenic work, which serve as foundations to some of the modern houses. (Plin. iv. 1; Procop. de Aedif. iv. 4; Leake, Northern Greece, vol. i. pp. 7, 82, 89, seq.)

CHIME'RIUM. [CHEIMERIUM.] CHI'NALAPH (Xivaλáp, Ptol. iv. 2. §5; VR. Xivápaλ: Shellif), the largest river of Mauretania Caesariensis, and, next to the Malva, of all N. Africa, is yet only mentioned by Ptolemy, who places its source in M. Zalacus. Its chief sources are in Jebel Amur, above 34° N. lat., whence it flows nearly N. to about 36° 20′ N. lat., and there turning W. waters the great valley of the Lesser Atlas, which forms one of the most important inland districts of Algeria, and in which, upon the river, are the towns of Miliana (Maliana) and Orleansville (Castellum Tingitanum). [P.S.]

CHÍNNERETH (Kevepé0, LXX.), a fenced city of the tribe of Naphthali (Josh. xix. 35.) It was apparently situated near the Sea of Tiberias, which in the earlier books is called the Sea of Chinnereth (Numb. xxxiv. 11; Deut. iii. 17; Josh. xii. 3), and "the plains south of Chinneroth" (Josh. xi. 2) is the great valley of the Jordan- the μéya medíov of Josephus. It was supposed by S. Jerome and others to be the ancient representative of the city Tiberias, and certainly Reland's argument is not valid against this theory. (Palaest. pp. 161, 724.) [G. W.]

CHIOS (Xíos: Eth. Xios, contracted from Xios; Adj. Xianos: Khio, Scio; Saki Adassi, as the Turks call it, or Sakisadasi, according to other authorities), an island of the Aegean, opposite to the peninsula in which Erythrae was situated. The various fanciful reasons for the name are collected by Stephanus (s. v. Xíos: comp. Paus. vii. 6. § 4). The earlier names of the island were Aethalia, according to Ephorus quoted by Pliny (v. 31), and Macris, an epithet probably derived from its form, and Pityusa or Pine island, from the pine forests. (Plin. l. c.; Strab. p. 589.)

A strait 5 miles wide in the narrowest part separates the island from the mainland of Asia. Seen from the sea to the NE. "the bold and yellow mountains of Scio form a striking outline against the blue sky (Hamilton, Researches, &c. vol. ii. p. 5). Chios lies from north to south, and its extreme length is about 32 miles. The greatest width, which is in the northern part, is about 18 miles; and in the narrowest part, which is somewhat nearer |

to the southern than the northern extremity, it is only about 8 miles wide. The circuit (περίπλους) according to Strabo (p. 645) is 900 stadia; but Pliny makes it 125 Roman miles, or 1,000 stadia; and Isidorus, whom he quotes, makes it 134. The real circuit is about 110 English miles by the maps. Pliny's 125 miles may be nearly exact. The area may be somewhat about 400 square miles, English, or about thrice the area of the Isle of Wight. Clinton very erroneously makes it only 257 square miles (Fasti, Pop. of Ancient Greece, p. 411).

Strabo's description commences on the east side of the island, where the chief town, Chios, was situated, which had a harbour capable of hold. ing 80 ships. His periplus is southwards. He next mentions the Posidium, now Cape Mastico, the southern point of the island; then Phanae (Thuc. viii. 24), where there was a deep recess, a temple of Apollo, and a grove of palm-trees. There was also a point or headland at Phanae (Steph. s. v. Þávai), which Ptolemy also mentions under the name Phanaea. Livy (xliv. 28) mentions the Promontorium Phanae as a convenient place to sail from to Macedonia. It seems to correspond to Port Mesta, on the western coast. After Phanae, proceeding northward along the west coast, Strabo mentions Notium, a beach which was adapted for hauling up ships; and then Laii, a beach of the same character, whence the distance to the city of Chios, on the opposite coast, was 60 stadia. The position of Laii is fixed by this description at or near a place marked Port Aluntha in some maps. Groskurd (Transl. Strab. vol. iii. p. 26) proposes to change this name to Laïnus, or Laïni, "the stony shore." According to Koray, who was a native of Smyrna, the Greeks still call this coast, with the harbour Mesta, whicn belongs to it, by the name of Lithilimena; and he remarks that the isthmus at this part is the narBut this is not true of Port Mesta, for the island contracts several miles north of that point. The periplus from the town of Chios to Laii is 360 stadia (Strab.). The real distance is about 60 miles, and Strabo's measure is incorrect.

rowest.

Strabo mentions no other place on the west coast, till he comes to the promontory Melaena, opposite to the island of Psyra (Psara), which island he places only 50 stadia from the cape, which is too little, for it is 11 or 12 miles. Melaena seems to be Cape S. Nicolo. After the promontory Melaena comes the Ariusia, a rocky shore without harbours, about 300 stadia in length; but this tract produced the best of all the Greek wines. Then, the mountain Pelinaeus, the highest summit in the island. This is Mt. Elias, a common name for mountains in the Greek archipelago. The island has a marble quarry. This is the sum of Strabo's incomplete description of Chios. He makes the distance from Chios to Lesbus 400 stadia; but the nearest points are not more than 30 miles apart.

The northern part of Chios is the most rugged and mountainous, but all the island is uneven, and the epithet waimaλóeσσα in the Homeric Hymn, quoted by Thucydides (iii. 104), is appropriate. It is a rocky island, generally ill provided with water, and rain comes seldom. It produces, however, some corn and good wine. The wine was exported to Italy under the name of Vinum Arvisium in Pliny's time (xiv. 7). and it is often mentioned by the Roman writers. The Arvisia which produced this fine wine, is the Ariusia of Strabo. (See Vib. Sequester, p. 289, ed. Oberlin). The country about Phanae

was also a wine-growing tract (Virg. Georg. ii. 97, | rex ipse Phanaeus," &c.); there was a story that the people of this island claimed to be the discoverers of the art of wine making. (Theopomp. quoted by Athen. p. 26, ed. Cas.) Thevenot (Travels into the Levant, Engl. Transl. part i. p. 93, &c.) found the wine thick; but he must have been ill served, or have got hold of some vino cotto. Chandler (Travels in Asia Minor, c. 16), who was treated by an English resident, found the wines excellent. Another chief product of the island was the gum mastic (Plin. xii. 17), which was in great repute in ancient times, and still forms one of the chief products of the island. This resin is got from the Lentiscus by making incisions, and collecting the fluid when it has hardened. The mode of getting it is described by Thevenot and Tournefort. Chios was also noted for its figs (Varr. de R. R. i. 41), which had been transplanted into Italy. The island contained a clay adapted for pottery (Strab. p. 317). In Thevenot's time all the earthenware that was used in the island, was made at a village named Armolia. The island is healthy. The beauty of the women is celebrated by ancient writers and modern travellers. The growth of the vine, olive, lemon, orange, citron, and palm, show what the temperature is. Thevenot says that the island is subject to earthquakes; and the fall of a school-house recorded by Herodotus (vi. 27) may have been owing to an earthquake. (Sueton. Tib. 8.)

The town or the island of Chios was one of the places that claimed to be the birth-place of Homer, and the natives show a place on the north coast of the island, at some distance from the town, which they call Homer's school. Chandler supposed the place to have been a temple of Cybele, open at the top, and situated on the summit of a rock. It is of an oval form, and in the centre was the figure of the goddess, which wanted the head and arm when Chandler saw it. She was represented sitting, and on each side of the chair, and also behind, was the figure of a lion. Round the inside is a kind of seat. Pococke changed the goddess into Homer, and the two lions on the sides of the chair into Muses. It is a rude piece of workmanship, perhaps of great antiquity, and cut in the rock (Chandler, c. 16, and the note in the French edition). The distinguished natives of Chios were Ion, the tragic writer, Theopompus, the historian, and the sophist Theocritus. (Strabo.) Also, Metrodorus, and the geographer Scymnus.

The chief town of Chios, as already observed, had the name of Chios, though Strabo does not mention the name of the city, but the passage is probably corrupt. (See Groskurd's note, vol. iii. p. 26.) It was on the east side of the island, and is now named Scio, though it seems to be called Kastro in some maps. The city and its environs are like Genoa and its territory in miniature. Some authorities (Dionys. Perieg. 535) place it at the foot of Pellenaeus, which seems to be the same name as Strabo's Pelinaeus. Probably the name of the high range of Pelinaeus may have extended as far south as the town of Chios. Chandler could not see either stadium, odeum or theatre, the usual accompaniments of every Greek town, and we know that Chios had a theatre. As there was a marble quarry in the vicinity, there was abundance of building materials. The stones of the old Greek town have, doubtless, been used for building the modern town, for marbles and basreliefs are seen in the walls of the town and of the

houses. On the east side of the island was a town Delphinium, in a strong position, with harbours, and not far from Chios (Thuc. viii. 38; Xen. Hell. i. 5. § 15). The modern site is indicated by the name Delphino. Bolissus (Thuc. viii. 24) is Volisso on the NW. coast, south of Cape S. Nicolo. Stephanus (8. v. Boλɩσós) has made a mistake in placing it in Aeolis, though he quotes Thucydides (èv ỏydóŋ), and says that the historian calls it Boliscus. Thucydides (viii. 24) also mentions a place called Leuconium (AeUKOVIOV), the site of which does not appear to be known. Cardamyle, also mentioned by Thucydides (viii. 24), as a place where the Athenians landed to attack the people of Chios, is Khardamli, a little distance from the NE. coast of the island. According to Thevenot there is a good harbour at Cardamila, as he writes it, which he places two miles from the coast. The country round Cardamyle is fertile, abounds in springs, and is well adapted for the cultivation of the vine. The situation of Caucasa (Herod. v. 33), and Polichne (Herod. vi. 26), are not determined. Caucasa was probably on the west side of the island. The situ ation of the place called Coela (тà Koîλa, Herod vi. 26) is uncertain.

64

The oldest inhabitants of the island were Pelasgi, according to one tradition (Eustath. ad Dion. Perieg. 533); and Strabo affirms (p. 621) that the Chians considered the Pelasgi from Thessaly, as their settlers," which, if it has any exact meaning, is a statement that they were descendants of Thessalian Pelasgi. In another passage (p. 632) he gives the statement of Pherecydes, that Leleges originally possessed the Ionian coast north of Ephesus, as far as Phocaea, Chios, and Samus, by which is perhaps meant that Leleges occupied Chios, from which they were ejected by the Iones. Ion, a native of Chios, following, we may suppose, local tradition, knew of no inhabitants of Chios before the three sons of Poseidon, who were born in the island: then came Oenopion and his sons from Crete, who were followed by Carians, and Abantes from Euboea. Other settlers came from Histiaea in Euboea under Amphiclus. Hector, the fourth in descent from Amphiclus, fought with the Abantes and Carians, killed some of them, and made terms with the rest for their quitting the island. Things being settled, it came into Hector's mind that the people of Chios ought to join the Ionians in their religious festival at Panionium. (Paus. vii. 4. § 8.) But Ion, as Pausanias observes, has not said how the Chians came to be included in the Ionian confederation. Chios is enumerated by Herodotus (i. 18, 142) among the insular states of the Ionian confederation, and as having the same peculiar dialect or variety of the Greek language as the people of Erythrae on the opposite mainland. At the time of the conquest of Ionia by Cyrus (B. c. 546), the Chians were protected by their insular position, for the Persians at that time had no navy. They obtained from the Persians at that time a grant of the Atarneus [ATARNEUS], for delivering up to them Pactyes, a Lydian.

The Chians joined the rest of the Ionians in the revolt against the Persians (B. C. 499), and they had 100 ships in the great sea-fight off Miletus. After the defeat of the confederates, the Persians landed in Chios, burnt the cities and temples, and carried off all the most beautiful girls (Herod. vi. 8, 32). When Xerxes (B. c. 480) invaded Greece, the Iorians had 100 ships in the Persian navy, but it is not said which states supplied them. (Herod. vii. 94.)

The island was afterwards in alliance with Athens (Thucyd. i. 116); and at the commencement of the Peloponnesian war, the Chians were still the allies or subjects of the Athenians. (Thuc. ii. 9.) At the close of the seventh year of the war, they fell under suspicion of intending to desert the Athenians, and they, that is, the inhabitants of the town of Chios, were compelled to pull down "their new wall." (Thuc. iv. 51.) A few years afterwards (B. C. 412) they did revolt. (Thuc. viii. 14-61.) The Athenians landing at Bolissus and Cardamyle, defeated the Chians and destroyed both these places. Again, the Chians were defeated at Phanae and at Leuconium, and being unable to resist, they shut themselves up in their city, while the Athenians wasted their beautiful and well cultivated island, which had suffered no calamity since the Persian invasion. The Athenians then occupied Delphinium, which was not far from the city of Chios. During the siege, many of the slaves of the Chians made their escape, for the city possessed more slaves than any other Greek city except Lacedaemon. (Thuc. viii. 40.) Their slaves were not the subjugated old inhabitants of the island, but barbarians whom they bought. Being at last closely invested by the Athenians, both on the land side and by sea, the Chians suffered from famine. The town however was not taken, for the Athenians had plenty to look after in other quarters. The Athenians recovered Chios at a later period, but it again revolted, and during the Social War, the Athenians again besieged Chios (B.C. 357), and Chabrias, one of the Athenian commanders, lost his life there.

The subsequent history of Chios consists only of a few disconnected facts, but as they sent ambassadors to Greece at the same time with Ptolemy king of Egypt, the Rhodians, and the Athenians to put an end to the war between king Philip and the Aetolians (B. C. 208), we may infer that they maintained at that time an independent position. (Liv. xxvii. 30; comp. Polyb. v. 24.) It appears from Appian (Maced. 3) that Philip took Chios, the town probably, in B. C. 201, about the same time that he ravaged the Peraea of the Rhodians. In the war of the Romans with Antiochus (B. c. 190), the Romans used Chios as a depôt for their supplies from Italy (Liv. xxxvii. 27), at which time the coast of Chios was plundered by pirates, who carried off an immense booty. The Romans rewarded the Chians for their fidelity in this war with a grant of land (Liv. xxxviii. 39), but we are not told where the land was. (Polyb. xxii. 27.) The Chians were the allies of Mithridates in a sea-fight against the Rhodians (App. Mithr. 25); but as the king soon after suspected them of favouring the Romans, he sent Zenobius (B. c. 86) there to demand the surrender of their arms, and the children of the chief persons as hostages. The Chians, being unable to resist, for Zenobius had come on them unexpectedly with a large force, complied with both demands. A letter from Mithridates demanded of them 2000 talents, which the people raised by taking the valuable things from the temples, and the ornaments of the women. Zenobius, pretending that the tale was incomplete, summoned the Chians to the theatre, and drove them thence under the terror of the bare sword down to his ships in the harbour, and carried them off to the Black Sea. (Appian. Mithr 46.) Part of them were hospitably received by the Heracleots of Bithynia, as the ships were sailing past their town, and entertained till they could return home. It appears from Appian, that at the time

when Mithridates handled the Chians so roughly, Romans had settled in the island, probably in the usual way, as "negotiatores." When Sulla (B. C. 84) had compelled Mithridates to accept his terms, he treated in a friendly way the Chians and others who had been allies with the Romans, or had suffered in the war, declared them free (Liberi), and allies and Socii of the Roman people. Cicero and Pliny speak of Chios as Libera, which term signifies a certain amount of self-government under the Roman dominion, and a less direct subjection to the governor of a province. Chios was one of the places from which Verres carried off some statues. It does not seem to have been included in the Roman province of Asia; and indeed if the term "libera" applied to the whole island, it would not be under a Roman governor. At a later period, Chios was one of the islands included in the Insularum Provincia, a province which seems to have been established by Vespasian.

The modern history of Scio is a repetition of old calamities. In the early part of the 14th century, the Turks took the city of Chios and massacred the people. In 1346, it fell into the hands of the Genoese, who kept it for nearly two centuries and a half, when the Turks took it from them. The condition of the people under Turkish rule was on the whole very favourable, and the island was in a prosperous condition till 1822, when the Chiots joined in the insurrection against the Turks, or, as it appears, were driven into it by some Samiotes and other Greeks. The Turks came with a powerful fleet, and slaughtered the people without mercy. The women and children were made slaves, and the town was burnt. This terrible and brutal devastation, which made a frightful desert of a well cultivated country, and a ruin of a town of near 30,000 inhabitants, gives us a more lively image of the sufferings of this unlucky island twenty-three centuries before, when the barbarous Persians ravaged it. The small islands Oenussae belonged to Chios. [OENUSSAE.] [G.L'

CHLORUS, a river of Cilicia Campestris, which Pliny (v. 27) mentions between the towns of Issus and Aegae. [G. L.]

CHOANA (Xóava, Ptol. vi. 2. § 14), a place in Media. Forbiger suggests that perhaps it is the same as Xavwv, a place mentioned by Diodorus (ii. 13) as one of those where Semiramis was in the habit of dwelling. It is probably represented by the modern Kan, or Kum.

[V.]

CHOARE'NE (Xoapnvh, Ptol. vi. 5. § 1; Xwpnh, Strab. xi. p. 514; Isid. Charac.; Choara, Plin. vi. 15. s. 17), a district of Parthia immediately adjoining the Caspian Gates. It was a plain country, and had a town in it called Apameia Rhagiana [APAMEIA, No. 6], and two smaller towns, Calliope and Issatis. (Plin. l. c.)

2. A district of Ariana, mentioned only by Strabo (xv. p. 725), who describes it as nearest to India of all the countries which the Parthians had subdued.

[E. H. B.] CHORA, or CORA, a place in Gallia, mentioned by Ammianus Marcellinus (xvi. 2) as being on Julian's route from Augustodunum (Autun) to Autosiodurum, that is, Autissiodurum (Auxerre). This indicates the Roman road from Autun to Auxerre, for the road mentioned by Ammianus went "per Sedelaucum et Choram." Sedelaucum is the Sidolocum (Saulieu) of the Itin. Chora is therefore between Saulieu and Auxerre; and the river Cure, a branch of the Yonne, runs in the general direction of the road from Autun to Auxerre. The next station on the road to Saulieu is Aballo (Avallon). D'Anville finds a place called Cure on the river Cure, between Avallon and Auxerre, which he supposes to be Chora. Others fix Chora at La Ville Auxerre, near St. Moré, which is also between Avallon and Auxerre (H.Vales. ad Amm. Marc. xvi. 2; D'Anville, Notice, &c.; Walckenaer, Géog., fc. vol. i. p. 411, vol. ii. p. 351). [G. L.]

CHORA'SMII (Xwpáσuio, Her. iii. 93, 117; Strab. xi. p. 513; Dionys. Per. x. 746; Arrian, iv. 15; Curt. vii. 4, viii. 1; Steph. B. s. v.; Ptol. vi. 12. § 4; Plin. vi. 16), an extensive tribe of Sogdiana, now represented by Khawarezm, in the desert country of Khira, on the banks of the Gihon. The name is not always written exactly the same: thus Strabo (xi. p. 513) called the people Chorasmusini, which is probably an error; and in some editions of Ptolemy they are called Choramnii. They appear to have been of a Scythian stock, and are coupled by ancient authors with the Daae, Massagetae, and Soghdi. Stephanus, on the authority of Hecataeus, states that there was also a city called Chorasmia, of which the Chorasmii were the inhabitants. [V.] CHORAZIN (Xopa(lv), mentioned only in St. Matthew (xi. 26), and the parallel passage in St. Luke (x. 13) in our Lord's denunciation. This site had strangely baffled the inquiries of travellers (Lord Lindsay's Travels, vol. ii. p. 91; Robinson, B. R. vol. iii. p. 295), until it was recovered and identified by the writer and a friend in 1842. In the hills on the north of the Sea of Tiberias, about two miles north-west of Capernaum (Tell-Hum) is a ruined site still called by the Bedouins who pasture it Gerazi in a small plain to the east of the ruins is a fountain called by the same name. It is utterly desolate; a fragment of a shaft of a marble column alone standing in the midst of universal ruin. [G. W.]

:

CHORI (Xoph, Xopí, Const. Porph. De Adm. Imp. c. 44), a district of Armenia, situated on the NW. bank of the lake of Ván; if it be identified with the Canton of Khorkkhorhounikh, which belonged to a race of princes very celebrated in the history of Armenia. (St. Martin, Mém. sur l'Armenie, vol. i. p. 100.) [E. B. J.] CHORSEUS (Xópσreos, Ptol. v. 16. § 1), a river of Palestine, which formed the boundary between that country and Phoenicia, and fell into the sea between Dora and Caesarea Stratonis, now the Coradsché (Von Raumer, Palestina, p. 53; Pococke, Trav. vol. ii. p. 58), a name which does not occur in the maps, but probably a mountain stream which flows only in winter.

[E. B. J.]

CHORZANE, CHORZIANE'NE (XopÇávn, Procop. áed. 33; XopGiavŋvý, Procop. B. P. ii. 24), a district of Armenia, which Forbiger (vol. ii. p. 601) |

CHORZE'NE (Xopný, Strab. xi. p. 528), a mountainous district, situated to the NW. of the Greater Armenia, which had originally belonged to the Iberians. (St. Martin, Append. to Le Beau, Bas Empire, vol. xv. p. 491.) The capital of this district was the town which appears after the 10th century under the name of Kárs (Káps, Const. Porph. de Adm. Imp. c. 44), and was well known as the residence of the Bagratid princes from A. D. 928-961. In A. D. 1064 the last of these princes gave up the district to Constantine Ducas in exchange for a principality in Armenia Minor (St. Martin, Mém. sur l'Armenie, vol. i. p. 375). The province has ever since retained the name of Kars. The snow fell to such depth in this mountain tract, that Strabo (1. c.) speaks of whole caravans of travellers being buried in the drifts, and having to be dug out. The same author (l. c.) describes a curious kind of snow-worm which was found here. Mr. Brant in ascending the Sapán Tágh was told by his Kurd guides that they had seen this animal; one of them went to a pool of melted snow to procure a specimen, but did not succeed in the attempt. (Journ. Geog. Soc. vol. x. p. 410; Ritter, Erdkunde, vol. x. p. 423, foll.) [E. B. J.]

CHRENDI. [CHARINDA.]

CHRETES (Xpérns), a river on the W. coast of Africa, a little S. of CERNE (Hanno, p. 3), on the position of which its identification of course depends. According to Rennell's view, it must be the river St. John; but those who place Cerne in the bay of Agadir identify the Chretes with the Wadi Sus, the Subus of Ptolemy. [P.S.]

CHRISTO POLIS (Xpiστówoλis), a town of Macedonia, situated on the Via Egnatia, mentioned by the writers of the Lower Empire (Georg. Acrop. c. 43; Niceph. Greg. xiii. 1. § 1, xiii. 5. §1), which some have supposed to have occupied the site of Datum, but should more properly be identified with Acontisma. [ACONTISMA.] [E. B. J.]

CHRONOS or CHRONIUS FL. [SARMATIA EUROPAEA.]

CHRYSA (Χρύση, Χρύσα : Eth. Χρυσεύς). Stephanus (s. v.) has a list of various places so called. He does not decide which is the Chrysa of Homer (II. i. 37, 390, 431). He mentions a Chrysa on the Hellespont, between Ophrynium and Abydus. Pliny (v. 30) mentions Chryse, a town of Aeolis, as no longer existing in his time. He also mentions Chryse in the Troad, and apparently places it north of the promontory Lectum, and on the coast. He says that Chrysa did not exist, but the temple of Smintheus remained; that is, the temple of Apollo Smintheus. The name Smitheus, not Smintheus, appears on a coin of Alexandria of Troas (Harduin's note on Plin. v. 30). The Table places "Smynthium" between Alexandria and Assus, and 4 miles south of Alexandria. Strabo (p. 604) places Chrysa on a hill, and he mentions the temple of Smintheus, and speaks of a symbol, which recorded the etymon of the name, the mouse which lay at