for the Latin crusaders to destroy these precious remains of ancient art, and the four bronze horses of San Marco at Venice are the only remains of the handywork of the Grecian artists with which Constantinople was peopled.

While private houses and public buildings for business, for convenience, for amusement, and splendour rose with the rapidity of enchantment, one class of edifices was wanting. A few temples, such as those of the Sun, the Moon, and Aphrodite, were permitted to stand in the Heropolis, though deprived of their revenues. (Malala, Constant. x.) But few churches were built; of these one was dedicated to the Supreme Wisdom. The ancient Temple of Peace, which afterwards formed part of Santa Sophia, was appropriately transformed into a church. The Church of the Twelve Apostles appears from Eusebius (Vit. Const. iv. 58) to have been finished a few days before the death of Constantine; it fell to ruin 20 years afterwards, was repaired by Constantius, rebuilt by Justinian, and demolished by Mohammed II.

Theodosius the Great built the principal gate of Constantinople, "The Golden Gate," so celebrated by the Byzantine writers; this gate, on the S. of the town, was that by which the emperors made their solemn entry and stood at the beginning of the principal street, which crossed the town up to the Bosporus. Gyllius (Bandur. Imp. Orient. vol. ii. p. 595), in the 16th century, saw the remains of it. It is now sought for in vain, though a gate entirely blocked up is sometimes shown to travellers for it. The Empress Eudoxia, wife of Arcadius, ornamented her city with a palace and baths. Theodosius II. loved the arts, and himself cultivated painting and sculpture; he encouraged architecture, and executed considerable works; in his reign the walls of Constantinople were in great measure rebuilt, and the city adorned with thermae, a forum, and two palaces for the sisters of Pulcheria. In 447, after the great earthquake, the edifices of Constantinople were restored with renewed splendour. Marcian turned his attention chiefly to the aqueducts; Leo I. Thrax to the churches of Constantinople. Nothing is recorded as having been constructed under Zeno and Anastasius. Justin I., besides his great works at Antioch, contributed to the embellishments, or rather restoration of Constantinople. The reign of Justinian is the most brilliant epoch of the NeoGreek or Byzantine architecture; and, like Hadrian, this emperor was entitled to the proud distinction of being called by his contemporaries "reparator orbis." The great ornament of Constantinople was the temple reared by Justinian in honour of the Eternal Wisdom (S. Sophia). This, the principal church of Constantinople, had been twice destroyed by fire, after the exile of John Chrysostom, and during the Nika of the Blue and Green factions. Anthemius of Tralles, and Isidorus of Miletus, were the builders employed by Justinian to rebuild the church on a plan in which, as Mr. Hope (Hist. of Architecture, p. 126) remarks, the wisdom of man shows but little. Disregarding the cardinal rule that all architectural trick is inconsistent with good taste, they endeavoured to make it appear entirely hovering in air without the least earthly resting-place. The attempt was unsuccessful, for, in A.D. 558, twentyone years after the dedication, an earthquake nearly destroyed it; another Isidorus, nephew of the former, was employed to restore it; an elevation of 20 feet more than it had before its fall was given to

the dome, and the originally circular was changed to an elliptical form. Though such was the lightness of the dome that it appeared suspended "by a chain from Heaven," the circle which encompasses the dome rested on four strong arches, supported on four massive piles, assisted on the N. and S. side by four columns of granite, each of a shaft 40 feet long. Two larger and six smaller semi-domes sprouted out and encircled the central cupola. The groundplan describes the figure of a Greek cross within a quadrangle, but on the inside was oval. (Comp. Procop. de Aed. i. 1; Agath. v. pp. 152, 153; Paul. Silentiar. ad calc. Ann. Comnen. Alex.; Evag.iv. 31; Dallaway, Ancient and Modern Constantinople, p. 52.) The best description of this magnificent church is to be seen in Batissier (Histoire de l'Art Monumental, p. 386, foll.). Besides this great model of Eastern architecture, Justinian erected more than twenty-five churches in Constantinople and its suburbs In honour of himself a colossal statue, representing the emperor mounted on horseback and in an attitude of defiance, was placed upon a column in the Augusteum before S. Sophia. This statue existed as late as the 16th century, when it was melted into cannon by the Turks. (Gyllius, de Top. Const. ii. 13.) The palace was also restored by Justinian, and magnificently adorned with bronze, many coloured marbles and mosaics, representing the glories of the African and Italian triumphs. From the time of Heraclius to the hour of her fall, the outward glories of Constantinople shared the same fate as her renown and greatness. Here and there some emperor might endeavour to repair the ravages which time, nature, or violence had wrought upon the mighty works of his predecessors. In the 10th century the palace, the ceremonies of which have been described by Constantine Porphyrogenitus (de Caer. Aul. Byz.), was pre-eminent for its size, strength, and magnificence. (Ducange, Constantinop. Christian. ii. 4.) A large and irregular building, each separate part bore the character of its founder, and the times.

The Latin crusaders, Mohammed II., and subsequent neglect and recklessness, have effected such results, that it may be said, with almost literal truth of the city of Constantine and Justinian, not one stone resteth upon another.

VI. GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION.

With the foundation of a new capital a new order of things in the civil and military administration was introduced; commenced by Diocletian it was perfected by Constantine.

In the hierarchy of the state the magistrates were divided into 3 classes, I. The "Illustrious." II. The "Spectabiles." III. The "Clarissimi."

There were 2 inferior ranks conferred on those who were not raised to the senatorial dignity. IV. The Perfectissimi." V. The "Egregii."

The 3rd epithet belonged to the senatorial rank, the 2nd to those of superior distinction; the 1st was granted only to

I. Consuls and patricians.

II. The Praetorian praefects, with the praefects of Rome and Constantinople.

III. The masters-general of the infantry and cavalry.

IV. The seven ministers of the palace who ex

V. REGION.

Baths of Honorius.

Cistern of Theodosius. Theban Obelisk. Storehouses.

Senate House.

Neorian Port.

Stairs of Sycoena.

S. Irene.

S. Anastasia.

S. Paul.

palace of the "Thousand and One Pillars," is now perfectly dry. The other still existing as a cistern, and called the "Subterranean Palace," may be described as an underground lake, with an arched roof to cover it, supported on 336 marble pillars.

From the throne, seated upon which the emperor viewed the games of the Circus, a winding staircase called cochlea descended to the palace. This was a magnificent building, covering a great extent of ground, on the banks of the Propontis, between the Hippodrome and the church of S. Sophia, now the Seraglio. The baths of Zeuxippus, the site of

X. REGION.

Church of S. Achatius.
Baths of Constantine.

House of Augusta Placidia.
House of Augusta Eudocia.

House of Arcadia.

Large Nymphaeum.

20 streets, 636 great houses, 6 large porticoes.

XI. REGION.

Church of the Apostles.

Palace of Flacilla.

House of Augusta Pulcheria.

The Brazen Bull.

Cistern of Arcadius.

Cistern of Modestus.

8 streets, 503 great houses, 4 larg porticoes.

XII. REGION.

Porta Aurea.

Portico of Troas.

Forum of Theodosius.

Column with winding stairs.

Mint or Treasury.

Port of Theodosius.

11 streets, 363 great houses, 3 large porticoes.

11 streets, 167 great houses, 2 large porticoes.

which it is difficult to fix, as, while history seems to connect them with S. Sophia and the palace, the original plan places them on the other side of the city, near the harbour, were so embellished by Constantine with statues of marble and bronze, that they became famed as the most beautiful in the world. These statues were brought from their local sanctuaries to adorn the squares and baths of Constantinople,-the Athene of Lyndus, the Muses of Helicon, the Amphitrite of Rhodes, the Pan which was consecrated by the Greeks after the defeat of Xerxes. Theodosius the younger pulled down the Dioscuri, who overlooked the Hippodrome. It was reserved

for the Latin crusaders to destroy these precious remains of ancient art, and the four bronze horses of San Marco at Venice are the only remains of the handywork of the Grecian artists with which Constantinople was peopled.

While private houses and public buildings for business, for convenience, for amusement, and splendour rose with the rapidity of enchantment, one class of edifices was wanting. A few temples, such as those of the Sun, the Moon, and Aphrodite, were permitted to stand in the Heropolis, though deprived of their revenues. (Malala, Constant. x.) But few churches were built; of these one was dedicated to the Supreme Wisdom. The ancient Temple of Peace, which afterwards formed part of Santa Sophia, was appropriately transformed into a church. The Church of the Twelve Apostles appears from Eusebius (Vit. Const. iv. 58) to have been finished a few days before the death of Constantine; it fell to ruin 20 years afterwards, was repaired by Constantius, rebuilt by Justinian, and demolished by Mohammed II.

Theodosius the Great built the principal gate of Constantinople, "The Golden Gate," so celebrated by the Byzantine writers; this gate, on the S. of the town, was that by which the emperors made their solemn entry and stood at the beginning of the principal street, which crossed the town up to the Bosporus. Gyllius (Bandur. Imp. Orient. vol. ii. p. 595), in the 16th century, saw the remains of it. It is now sought for in vain, though a gate entirely blocked up is sometimes shown to travellers for it. The Empress Eudoxia, wife of Arcadius, ornamented her city with a palace and baths. Theodosius II. loved the arts, and himself cultivated painting and sculpture; he encouraged architecture, and executed considerable works; in his reign the walls of Constantinople were in great measure rebuilt, and the city adorned with thermae, a forum, and two palaces for the sisters of Pulcheria. In 447, after the great earthquake, the edifices of Constantinople were restored with renewed splendour. Marcian turned his attention chiefly to the aqueducts; Leo I. Thrax to the churches of Constantinople. Nothing is recorded as having been constructed under Zeno and Anastasius. Justin I., besides his great works at Antioch, contributed to the embellishments, or rather restoration of Constantinople. The reign of Justinian is the most brilliant epoch of the NeoGreek or Byzantine architecture; and, like Hadrian, this emperor was entitled to the proud distinction of being called by his contemporaries "reparator orbis." The great ornament of Constantinople was the temple reared by Justinian in honour of the Eternal Wisdom (S. Sophia). This, the principal church of Constantinople, had been twice destroyed by fire, after the exile of John Chrysostom, and during the Nika of the Blue and Green factions. Anthemius of Tralles, and Isidorus of Miletus, were the builders employed by Justinian to rebuild the church on a plan in which, as Mr. Hope (Hist. of Architecture, p. 126) remarks, the wisdom of man shows but little. Disregarding the cardinal rule that all architectural trick is inconsistent with good taste, they endeavoured to make it appear entirely hovering in air without the least earthly resting-place. The attempt was unsuccessful, for, in A.D. 558, twentyone years after the dedication, an earthquake nearly destroyed it; another Isidorus, nephew of the former, was employed to restore it; an elevation of 20 feet more than it had before its fall was given to

the dome, and the originally circular was changed to an elliptical form. Though such was the lightness of the dome that it appeared suspended "by a chain from Heaven," the circle which encompasses the dome rested on four strong arches, supported on four massive piles, assisted on the N. and S. side by four columns of granite, each of a shaft 40 feet long. Two larger and six smaller semi-domes sprouted out and encircled the central cupola. The groundplan describes the figure of a Greek cross within a quadrangle, but on the inside was oval. (Comp. Procop. de Aed. i. 1; Agath. v. pp. 152, 153; Paul. Silentiar. ad calc. Ann. Comnen. Alex.; Evag.iv. 31; Dallaway, Ancient and Modern Constantinople, p. 52.) The best description of this magnificent church is to be seen in Batissier (Histoire de l'Art Monumental, p. 386, foll.). Besides this great model of Eastern architecture, Justinian erected more than twenty-five churches in Constantinople and its suburbs In honour of himself a colossal statue, representing the emperor mounted on horseback and in an attitude of defiance, was placed upon a column in the Augusteum before S. Sophia. This statue existed as late as the 16th century, when it was melted into cannon by the Turks. (Gyllius, de Top. Const. ii. 13.) The palace was also restored by Justinian, and magnificently adorned with bronze, many coloured marbles and mosaics, representing the glories of the African and Italian triumphs. From the time of Heraclius to the hour of her fall, the outward glories of Constantinople shared the same fate as her renown and greatness. Here and there some emperor might endeavour to repair the ravages which time, nature, or violence had wrought upon the mighty works of his predecessors. In the 10th century the palace, the ceremonies of which have been described by Constantine Porphyrogenitus (de Caer. Aul. Byz.), was pre-eminent for its size, strength, and magnificence. (Ducange, Constantinop. Christian. ii. 4.) A large and irregular building, each separate part bore the character of its founder, and the times.

The Latin crusaders, Mohammed II., and subsequent neglect and recklessness, have effected such results, that it may be said, with almost literal truth of the city of Constantine and Justinian, not one stone resteth upon another.

VI. GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION.

With the foundation of a new capital a new order of things in the civil and military administration was introduced; commenced by Diocletian it was perfected by Constantine.

In the hierarchy of the state the magistrates were divided into 3 classes, I. The "Illustrious." II. The "Spectabiles." III. The "Clarissimi."

There were 2 inferior ranks conferred on those who were not raised to the senatorial dignity. IV. The "Perfectissimi." V. The Egregii."

The 3rd epithet belonged to the senatorial rank, the 2nd to those of superior distinction; the 1st was granted only to

I. Consuls and patricians.

II. The Praetorian praefects, with the praefects of Rome and Constantinople.

III. The masters-general of the infantry and cavalry.

IV. The seven ministers of the palace who ex

emperor.

1. The consuls who, though their office had degenerated into an empty naine, were still the highest officers of the state, were inaugurated at the imperial residence with the utmost splendour. The title of patricians became, under Constantine, a personal and not an hereditary distinction, bestowed on the ministers and favourites of the court.

2. The praetorian praefects were the civil magistrates of the provinces, as the immediate representatives of the imperial majesty: everything was under their control. The accompanying table taken from Marquardt (Handbuch der Röm. Alterthum, p. 240), gives the division of the empire under these four great officers. Rome and Constantinople were alone exempted from their jurisdiction, but were respectively under a praefect of the city, and a perfect equality was established between the two municipal and the four praetorian praefects. The "spectabiles," in which were included the 3 proconsuls of Asia, Achaia, and Africa, with the lieutenant-generals and military counts and dukes, formed an intermediate class between the "illustrious" praefects and "honourable" magistrates of the provinces.

DIVISION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE, A.D. 400.

I. PRAEFECTUS PRAETORIO GALLIARUM.

2.

" Britanniae II.

D. Vicarius Ponticae.

1. Consularis Bithyniae.

Galatiae.

3. Corrector Paphlagoniae.

4. Praeses Honoriados.

(Praefectus Praetorio Orientis.)

Galatine Salutaris.

Cappadociae I.

Cappadociae II.

Helenoponti.

Ponti Polemoniaci.

Armeniae 1.

Armeniae II.

portant frontiers of the Rhine, the Upper and Lower Danube and the Euphrates, was committed to 8 masters-general of cavalry and infantry: under them were stationed 35 military commanders in the provinces; 3 in Britain; 6 in Gaul; in Spain; 1 in Italy 5 on the Upper Danube; 4 on the Lower Danube; 8 in Asia; 3 in Aegypt; 4 in Africa. These were distinguished by the titles of "dux" or duke, and "comes," counts or companions. There were 583 stations or garrisons established on the frontiers, and the effective force of the troops under the successors of Constantine was computed at 645,000 soldiers. From the difficulty of the levies, they were compelled to have recourse to barbarian auxiliaries.

Besides these magistrates and generals 7 great officers of state remained at court.

1. The eunuch, "praepositus," or praefect of the bed-chamber, under whom were comites to regulate the wardrobe and table of the emperor.

2. The "masters of the offices," the supreme magistrate of the palace, who inspected the discipline of the civil and military schools. In his office the public correspondence was managed in the 4 scrinia or bureaux.

3. The "quaestor," who may be compared with a modern chancellor.

4. The "count of the sacred largesses," or treasurer general of the revenue.

5. The "count of the private estate," or privy

purse.

6,7. The "counts of the domestics," or officers in command of the horse and foot guards, consisting of 7 battalions of 500 men each.

To facilitate intercourse between the court and the provinces" posts" were established: by an intolerable abuse the agents employed for this purpose became the official spies; and as in the new jurisdiction of the empire the "quaestio or torture was permitted in any offence where "hostile intention" against prince or state was presumed, the terrors of malicious informations were materially increased.

The treasury was supplied by a system of direct taxation, and the word indiction was transferred from the solemn edict of the emperor to the measure of tribute which it prescribed, and the term allowed for payment. The "decurions," who formed the corporations of the cities, were charged with assessing according to the census of property prepared by the "tabularii" the payment due from each proprietor. Besides the land-tax, which was in its operation a proprietor or landlord's tax, there was a capitation tax on all who were not possessed of landed property. Certain classes were gradually exempted, till at length it fell solely on the "coloni" and agricultural slaves. (Comp. Savigny, Abhand. der Berlin. Acad. 1822-23. p. 27.) Besides these general taxes upon industry "benevolences," under the name of coronary gold," were also exacted from communities on certain occasions.

66

It must be admitted that the Byzantine fiscal system, though so rapacious that it extracted for the government the whole annual surplus of the people's industry, was constructed with great financial skill. One fact may be cited to show how wisely this branch of the public service was administered. From the fall of the Western Roman Empire to the conquest of Constantinople by the Crusaders the gold coinage of the Empire was

standard. The concave gold byzants of Isaac II are precisely of the same weight and value as the solidus of Leo the Great and Zeno the Isaurian.

Gold was the circulating medium of the Empire, and the purity of the Byzantine coinage rendered it for many centuries the only gold currency that circulated in Europe.

An admirable account of the internal administration of the empire, and the social condition of the people will be found in Mr. Finlay's learned volumes, Greece under the Romans, and Mediaeval Greece. See also Hullinann, Geschichte der Byzantischen Handels.

For the topography of Constantinople the following works can be consulted:-Von Hammer, Constantinopel und die Bosporus; Dallaway, Constantinople, Ancient and Modern; Andreossy, Constantinople et le Bosphore; Carbognano, Descr. Topograph, di Const.; Banduri, Imp. Orient.; Codinus, de Orig. Constant.; Ducange, Constant. Christ. [E. B. J.]

CONSUANTAE, or CONSUANTES (Kovσovavra), a Celtic tribe of Vindelicia, on the upper Lech, in the neighbourhood of Schwangau. (Ptol. ii. 13. § 1; Plin. iii. 24, who calls them Consuanetes.) [L. S.]

CONTACOSSYLA (Kovтaкóσσvλa, Ptol. vii. 1 § 15), a place called by Ptolemy an emporium in the country of Maesolia or Masalia, in the S. of India. It has been conjectured, with good reason, to be the same as the modern Masulipatam. [V.]

CONTENEBRA, a town of Etruria, mentioned only by Livy (vi. 4), from whom it appears that it was situated in the territory of Tarquinii. It was taken and destroyed by the Romans in B. C. 388, at the same time with Cortuosa, the site of which is equally unknown. [E. H. B.]

Besides

CONTESTA'NI (KOνTEσTavoí), a people in the SE. of Hispania Tarraconensis, E. of the Bastetani. Their country, called Contestania, extended along the coast from the city of Urci, at the E. extremity of Baetica, to the river Sucro, and corresponded to Murcia and the S. part of Valencia. CARTHAGO NOVA, and Saetabis, they possessed the following less important cities: on the coast, Lucenti or LUCENTUM (Λουκέντοι ἢ Λούκεντον), Alonae (AAwvai), the port ILICI (IAAIKItavòs Xiμńv: the city itself stood a little inland); and, in the interior, MENLARIA (Mevλapía), VALENTIA (OvaAEVTía), Saetabicula (Zaiтabíkovλa), and Ìaspis ('Iaonis: Ptol. ii. 6. §§ 14. 62; Plin. iii. 3. s. 4; Liv. Fr. xci.). [P.S.]

CONTHYLE (Kovłóλn), a demus of Attica of unknown site. [See p. 334.]

CONTOPO'RIA. [ARGOS, p. 201, b.] CONTRA AGINNUM is placed by the Anton. Itin. half way between Augusta Veromanduorum (St. Quentin) and Augusta Suessionum (Soissons), 13 M. P. from each. The Table makes the distance 25 M. P. between these two places, and does not mention Contra Aginnum. D'Anville places Contra Aginnum at Condran on the Oise. The Notitia mentions a body of Batavi Contraginnenses who were stationed at Noviomagus Belgicae Secundae or Noyon. [G. L.]

CONTRE'BIA (Contrebienses). 1. One of the chief cities, and, according to Valerius Maximus, the capital of Celtiberia. It is conspicuous in the history of the Celtiberian War; and in the Sertorian War, it was the scene of one of those obstinate defences which so often occur in Spanish history