SECTION II. ALLUSIONS IN THE NEW TESTAMENT TO THE MILITARY DISCIPLINE AND TRIUMPHS OF THE ROMANS. I. Roman Military Officers mentioned in the New Testament.-II. Allusions to the Armour of the Romans.-III. To their Military Discipline.-Strict Subordination.-Rewards to soldiers who had distinguished themselves.-IV. Allusions to the Roman Triumphs. I. At the time the evangelists and apostles wrote, the Romans had AT extended their empire almost to the utmost boundaries of the then known world, principally by their unparalleled military discipline and heroic valour. Judæa was at this time subject to their sway, and their troops were stationed in different parts of that country. T We learn from Josephus, that the tower of Antonia, which overlooked the temple, was always garrisoned by a legion of soldiers; and that, on the side where it joined to the porticoes of the temple, there were stairs reaching to each portico, by which a company, band, or detachment descended, and kept guard (xouwdiav), in those porticoes, to prevent any tumult at the great festivals. The commanding officer of this force is in the New Testament termed the captain, the chief captain of the band, and the captain of the temple. (John xviii. 3. 12. Mark xv. 6. Matt. xxvii. 27. 64, 65, Acts x. 1. xxi. 31, 32. 37-40. Acts iv. 1. and v. 24.) It was the Roman captain of this fort, whose name was Claudius Lysias, that rescued Paul when the Jews were beating him and intended to kill him. (Acts xxi. 31. xxii. 4. xxiii. 26.) The allusions, in the New Testament, to the military discipline, armour, battles, sieges, and military honours of the Greeks, and especially of the Romans, are very numerous; and the sacred writers have derived from them metaphors and expressions of singular propriety, elegance, and energy, for animating Christians to fortitude against temptations, and to constancy in the profession of their holy faith under all persecutions, and also for stimulating them to persevere unto the end, that they may receive those final honours and that immortal crown which await victorious piety. II. In the following very striking and beautiful passage of St. Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians (vi. 11-17.), the various parts of the panoply armour of the heavy troops among the Greeks and Romans (those who had to sustain the rudest assaults) are distinctly enumerated, and beautifully applied to those moral and spiritual weapons with which the believer ought to be fortified. Put on the whole armour of God, that ye may be able to stand against the wiles of the devil. For we wrestle not against flesh and blood, but against principalities, against powers, against the rulers of the darkness of this world, against spiritual wickedness in high places. Wherefore 1 De Bell. Jud. lib. v. c. 5. § 8. Ant. Jud. lib. xx. c. 4. §3. take unto you 1. Ephes. vi. 13. 'Anaνтα кαTEрyacaμevo. This verb frequently signifies to despatch a foe, totally to vanquish and subdue an adversary. So it should be translated in this place. Ὃν αυτοχειρια κατειργάσατο : Whom he despatched with his own hand. Dion. Halicarn. tom. i. p. 99. Oxon. 1704. Пavra woλɛμia karɛPyaσαμενοι : Having quelled all hostilities. Idem, p. 885. Μεθ' ἧς ηδη πολλους πολέμιους Ratapyaobe: By which you have vanquished many enemies. Polyænus Stratag. p. 421. Lugd. 1589. Herpac aẞarovs σidnow Katelρyaoauny. Idem, p. 599. Casaubon Ταυρον αγριον ταις χερσι μοναις κατειργασμένω: He despatched a wild bull only, with his hands. Appian. vol. i. p. 201. Amst. 1670. See also pp. 5. 291. 410. 531. Tollii. The word here used by the apostle has also this signification in Dion Cassius, Josephus, and Philo. after all, or, besides all; it never signifies above all. Auros de kadeTOC ETI Taσi diaßaivov: After all, he himself passed with difficulty. Plutarch, Cesar. p. 1311. edit. Gr. Stephan. Αγοντα πρωτον την φαλαγγα, μετά ταύτα τους ίππεις, επι πασι δε το σκευοφόρον : First, he led up the phalanx, next the cavalry, after all the baggage. Polybius, p. 664. Casaubon. Er rao de Aσois evvea kai τεσσαράκοντα και μηνας δυο: After all, Assis reigned forty-nine years and two months. Josephus contra Apion. p. 445. Havercamp. 2 Επι πασιν, 3 The shield here intended (Jupeoç) is the scutum, or large oblong shield of the Romans, which was made of wood covered with hides, and derived its name from its resemblance to a door (Jupa). As faith is that Christian grace, by which all the others are preserved and rendered active, it is here properly represented under the figure of a shield; which covered and protected the whole body; and enables the believer to quench-to intercept, blunt, and extinguish, as on a shield-the fiery darts of the wicked one, that is, all those evil thoughts, and strong injections, as they are termed, which inflame the passions of the unrenewed, and excite the soul to acts of transgression. 4 Beλn TεTVρwμevu. These dreadful weapons were frequently employed by the antients. Πυρφορα τοξεύματα. Appian. p. 329. Πυρφόροις οίστοις Βαλλεσθαι. Thueydides, tom. ii. lib. xi. p. 202. Glasg. Τοιους, αγριε δαιμον, εχεις προεντας οἴστους. Oppian. Kuvny. lib. ii. ver. 425. According to Ammianus Marcellinus (lib. xxiii. c. 4.) these fiery darts consisted of a hollowed reed, to the lower part of which, under the point or barb, was fastened a round receptacle, made of iron, for combustible materials, so that such an arrow had the form of a distaff. This was filled with burning Naphtha; and when the arrow was shot from a slack bow, (for if discharged from a tight bow the fire went out,) it struck the enemies' ranks and remained infixed, the flame consuming whatever it met with; water poured on it increased its violence; there were no other means to extinguish it but by throwing earth upon it. Similar darts or arrows, which were twined round with tar and pitch, and set fire to, are described by Livy (lib. xxi. c. 8.), as having been made use of by the inhabitants of the city of Saguntum, when besieged by the Romans. 5 On the tops of the antient helmets, as well as in those now in use, is a crest or ridge, furnished with ornaments; some of the antient helmets had emblematic figures, and it is probable that Saint Paul, who in 1 Thess. v. 8. terms the helmet the hope of salvation, refers to such helmets as had on them the emblematic represention of hope. His meaning therefore is, that as the helmet defended the head from deadly blows, so the hope of salvation (of conquering every adversary, and of surmounting every difficulty, through Christ strengthening the Christian,) built on the promises of God, will ward off, or preserve him from, the fatal effects of all temptations, from worldly terrors and evils, so that they shall not disorder the imagination or pervert the judgment, or cause men to desert the path of duty, to their final destruction. VOL. III. 28 Having thus equipped the spiritual soldier with the divine panoply, the apostle proceeds to show him how he is to use it: he therefore subjoins-Praying always with all prayer and supplication in the Spirit, and watching thereunto with all perseverance. The Greeks and other antient nations, we have already observed, offered up prayers before they went into the battle. Alluding to this, Saint Paul adds the exhortation to believers, praying always at all seasons and on all occasions, with all prayer (more correctly, supplication for what is good) and deprecation of evil; and watching thereuntobeing always on their guard lest their spiritual enemies should surprise them-with all perseverance, being always intent on their object, and never losing sight of their danger or of their interest.1 In the Epistle to the Romans, the apostle, exhorting men to renounce those sins to which they had been long accustomed, and to enter upon a new and holy life, uses a beautiful similitude borrowed from the custom of soldiers throwing off their ordinary habit in order to put on a suit of armour. The night is far spent, the day is at hand: let us therefore CAST OFF the works of darkness, and let us PUT ON the ARMOUR of light.2 (Rom. xiii. 12.) In another passage he represents, by a striking simile, in what manner the apostles were fortified against the opposition with which they were called to conflict in this world. By the word of truth, by the power of God, by the ARMOUR of righteousness ON THE RIGHT HAND AND ON THE LEFT. (2 Cor. vi. 7.) III. It is well known that the strictest subordination and obedience were exacted of every Roman soldier. An allusion to this occurs in Matt. viii. 8, 9.; to understand which it is necessary to state a few particulars relative to the divisions of the Roman army. Their infantry were divided into three principal classes, the Hastati, the Principes, and the Triarii, each of which was composed of thirty manipuli or companies, and each manipulus contained two centuries or hundreds of men over every company were placed two centurions, who however were very far from being equal in rank and honour though possessing the same office. The triarii and principes were esteemed the most honourable, and had their centurions elected first, and these took precedency of the centurions of the Hastati, who were elected last. The humble centurion, who besought the aid of the compassionate Redeemer, appears to have been of this last order. He was a man under authority, that is, of the Principes or Triarii, and had none under him but the hundred men, who appear to have been in a state of the strictest military subordination, as well as of loving subjection to him. I am, said the centurion, a man under authority, having soldiers under me, and I say to this man, Go, and he goeth, and to another, Come, and he cometh; and to my slave (Tw dovλw μov), 1 Drs. Chandler, Macknight, and A. Clarke, on Eph. vi. 11-17. In the fifth of Bishop Horne's Discourses (Works, vol. v. pp. 60-72.) the reader will find an admirable and animated exposition of the Christian armour. 2 Αποθώμεθα τα έργα του σκότους και ενδυσωμεθα τα όπλα του φωτος. Fulgentiaque induit arma. Virgil, Eneid, ii. ver. 747. Πρωτον τοινυν αποδυσωμεν, ανάγκη γαρ τους μEMOVTAÇ ¿πλILEσVai, yvμvovodai „potepov. Lucian. tom. ii. p. 256. edit. Grævii. Do this, and he doeth it. The application of his argument, addressed to Christ, seems to be this-If I, who am a person subject to the controul of others, yet have some so completely subject to myself, that I can say to one, Come, and he cometh, &c., how much more then canst thou accomplish whatsoever thou willest, being under no controul, and having all things under thy command.1 There are two striking passages in Arrian's Discourses of Epictetus, which greatly illustrate this speech of the centurion :-Speaking of the Saturnalia, he says "We agreed to play Agamemnon and Achilles. He who is appointed for Agamemnon says to me-Go to Achilles, and force away Briseis.'-IGO.COME.'-I come."2 Again, discoursing on all things being under the divine inspection, he says:"When God commands the plants to blossom, they bear blossoms. When he commands them to bear seed, they bear seed. When he commands them to bring forth fruit, they put forth their fruit. When he commands them to ripen, they grow ripe. When he commands them to fade and shed their leaves, and to remain inactive, and involved (or contracted) within themselves, they thus remain and are inactive.3 Nor is the military subordination adverted to by the centurion without its (almost verbal) parallel in modern times in the East:— Kirtee-Ranah, a captive Ghoorkha chief, who was marching to the British head-quarters, on being interrogated concerning the motives that induced him to quit his native land and enter into the service of the Rajah of Nepal,-replied in the following very impressive manner:-" My master, the rajah, sent me: He says to his people,-to one, 'Go you to Gurwhal;' to another, 'Go you to Cashmire, or to any distant part. My Lord, thy slave OBEYS; it is DONE.'-None ever inquires into the reason of an order of the rajah."4 In his Epistle to Timothy, who appears to have been greatly dejected and dispirited by the opposition he met with, St. Paul animates him to fortitude, and among other directions encourages him to ENDURE HARDSHIP as a good soldier of Jesus Christ (2 Tim. ii. 3.)— and what hardship a Roman soldier supported, the following passage in Josephus will abundantly evince. It is the most striking commentary upon this text that was ever written. "When they march out of their encampment, they advance in silence and in great decorum, each man keeping his proper rank just as in battle. Their infantry are armed with breast-plates and helmets, and they carry a sword on each side. The sword they wear on their left side is by far the longest, for that on the right is not above a span's length. That se lect body of infantry, which forms part of the general's life-guards, is armed with lances and bucklers, but the rest of the phalanx have a spear and a long shield, besides which they bear a saw and a basket, 1 Dr. A. Clarke on Matt. viii. 9. 2 Arrian's Epictetus, book i. c. 25. § 1. (Mrs. Carter's translation, vol. i. p. 113.) 3 Ibid. book i. c. 14. Raphelii Annotationes in Sacram Scripturam, ex Heró doto, &c. vol. i. pp. 242, 243. 4 Fraser's Notes on the Hills at the foot of the Himala Mountains, p. 226. Lod don, 1820. 4to. a spade and a hatchet; they also carry with them a cord, a sickle, a chain, and provisions for three days! so that a Roman foot-soldier is but very little different from a BEAST OF BURDEN. ניי According to a military custom, established in an early period of the commonwealth, every Roman soldier chose his favourite comrade; and by that tie of friendship all were mutually bound to share every danger with their fellows. Saint Paul, alluding to this practice, terms Epaphroditus his companion in labour and fellow-soldier. (Phil. ii. 25.) Further, it is well known that the Roman soldiers were not allowed to marry; by this prohibition the Roman providence, as much as possible, studying to keep their military disembarrassed from the cares and distractions of secular life. To this law the apostle refers: no one that warreth, ENTANGLETH HIMSELF WITH THE AFFAIRS OF THIS LIFE; that he may please him who hath chosen him to be a soldier.3 (2 Tim. ii. 4.) The names of those who died or were cashiered for misconduct were expunged from the muster-roll. To this custom, probably, the following text alludes; in this view the similitude is very striking, I will not BLOT OUT his NAME out of the BOOK of life. (Rev. iii. 5.4) The triumphant advancement of the Christian religion through the world St. Paul compares to the irresistible progress of a victorious army, before which every fortified place, and all opposition, how formidable soever, yielded and fell. (2 Cor. x. 4.) For the weapons of our warfare are not carnal, but mighty through God to the pulling down of strong holds; casting down imaginations, and every thing that 1 Josephus, De Bell. Jud. lib. iii. c. 5. § 5. The following particulars, collected from Roman authors, will confirm and illustrate the statements of Josephus "The load which a Roman soldier carried, is almost incredible (Virg. Georg. iii. 346. Horat. Sat. ii. 10.); victuals (cibaria) for fifteen days (Cic. Tusc. ii. 15, 16.), sometimes more (Lev. Epit. 57.), usually corn, as being lighter, sometimes drest food (coctus cibus, Liv. iii. 27.), utensils (utensilia, ib. 42.), a saw, a basket, a mattock, an axe, a hook, and leathern thong, a chain, a pot, &c. (Liv. xxviii. 45. Horat. Epod. ix. 13.), stakes, usually three or four, sometimes twelve (Liv. iii. 27.) ; the whole amounting to sixty pounds weight, besides arms: for a Roman soldier considered these not as a burden but as a part of himself (arma membra milites ducebant. Cic. Tusc. ii. 16.)”—Adam's Roman Antiquities, p. 377. 2 Livy, lib. ix. c. 39. Tacitus, Hist. lib. i. c. 18.-Murphy's note, in his translation of Tacitus, vol. v. p. 356. 8vo. edit. 3 Τοις δε στρατευομένοις, επειδη γυναίκας ουκ εδυναντο εκ γε των νόμων ἔχειν. Dion Cassius, lib. lx. p. 961. Reimar. Tacitus speaking of some Roman veterans says: Neque conjugiis suscipiendis neque alendis liberis sueti. Taciti Annales, tom. ii. lib. xiv. cap. xxvii. p. 210. Dublin. 4 It is however possible that this allusion may be drawn from civil life, in which case the meaning of the above-cited passage will be this:-As in states and cities, those who obtained freedom and fellowship were enrolled in the public registers, which enrolment was their title to the privileges of citizens; so the King of Heaven, of the New Jerusalem, engages to preserve in his register and enrolment, in the book of life, the names of those, who, like the faithful members of the church of Sardis, in a corrupted and supine society, shall preserve allegiance, and a faithful discharge of their Christian duties. He will own them as his fellow citizens, before men and angels. Compare Matt. xx. 32. Luke xii. 8. See also Psal. lxix. 28. Ezek. xiii. 9. Exod. xxxiii. 33. Dan. xii. 1. Mal. iii. 16. Luke x. 20. Dr. Woodhouse on the Apocalypse, p. 84. 5 Avvara тw Otw, exceeding powerful. Moses is called aortic Tw Jew, exceeding beautiful. Acts viii. 20. |