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to give up his own daughters to their brutality, than his guests. (Gen. xix. 1, 2, 3.) The same is observable in the old man of Gibeah, who had received the young Levite, and his wife. (Judg. xix. 16, 17.) St. Paul (Heb. xiii. 2.) uses Abraham's and Lot's example to encourage the faithful to the exercise of hospitality, saying, that they who have practised it, have merited the honour of receiving angels under the form of men. The primitive Christians made one principal part of their duty to consist in the exercise of this virtue. Our Saviour tells his apostles, that whoever received them, received him himself; and that whosoever should give them even a glass of water, should not lose his reward. (Matt. xxv. 41. 45.) At the day of judgment, he will say to the wicked, Depart ye cursed, into everlasting fire: I was a stranger, and ye received me not; .... inasmuch as ye have not done it unto the least of these, ye have not done it unto St. Peter (1 Ep. iv. 9.) requires the faithful to use hospitality to their brethren without murmuring and complaint. St. Paul in several of his Epistles recommends hospitality. But he recommends it particularly to bishops. (1 Tim. iii. 2. Tit. i. 8.) The primitive Christians were so ready in the discharge of this duty, that the very heathens admired them for it. They were hospitable to all strangers, but especially to those of the same faith and communion. Believers scarcely ever travelled without letters of communion, which testified the purity of their faith: and this procured them a hospitable reception wherever the name of Jesus Christ was known. Calmet is of opinion, that the two last Epistles of St. John may be such kind of letters of communion and recommendation, as were given to Christians who travelled.

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Instances of hospitality among the early Greeks, abound in the writings of Homer, whose delineations of manners and customs reflect so much light on the Old Testament, especially on the Pentateuch; and that antient hospitality, which the Greeks considered as so sacred and inviolable, is still partially preserved. When the traveller makes a second tour through the country, he can hardly do any thing more offensive to the person by whom he was entertained in his first journey, than by not again having recourse to the kindness of his former host. Travelling would indeed be impracticable in Greece, if it were not facilitated by this noble sentiment; for the Protogeroi are not found in all parts of the country, and the miserable Khans or Karavanserais, are generally constructed only in towns or on highways.

Travelling, in the greater part of Greece, seems to have been, antiently at least, as difficult as it is at the present day: and that circumstance gave rise to the laws of hospitality. This reciprocal hospitality became hereditary in families; and the friendship which was thus contracted, was not less binding than the ties of affinity, or of blood. Those between whom a regard had been cemented by the intercourse of hospitality, were provided with some particular mark, which, being handed down from father to son, established a friendship and alliance between the families, for several genera

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tions. This mark was the duponov evrov of the Greeks, and the tessera hospitalis of the Latins. The duμBodov was sometimes an astragal, probably of lead, which, being cut in halves, one half was kept by the host, and the other by the person whom he had entertained. On future occasions they or their descendants, by whom the symbol was recognised, gave or received hospitality on comparing the two tallies. Mr. Dodwell found some half astragals of lead in Greece, which had probably served for this purpose.3

The antient Romans divided a tessera lengthwise, into two equal parts, as signs of hospitality, upon each of which one of the parties. wrote his name, and interchanged it with the other. The production of this, when they travelled, gave a mutual claim to the contracting parties and their descendants, for reception and kind treatment at each others' houses, as occasion offered. These tesseræ were sometimes of stone, shaped in the form of an oblong square: and to them some critics have supposed that an allusion is intended in Rev. ii. 17. where it is said, To him that overcometh, will I give a white stone, and in the stone a new name written, which no man knoweth, saving he that receiveth it. (Compare, however, p. 113. supra.) In this passage, the venerable translators of our authorised version, by rendering, it a white stone, seem to have confounded it with the calculus or small globular stone, which was commonly used for ballotting, and on some other occasions. The original words are npov Asuxov, which do not specify either the matter or the form, but only the use of it. By this allusion, therefore, the promise made to the church at Pergamos seems to be to this purpose:-That the faithful among them should hereafter be acknowledged by Christ, and received into a state of favour and perpetual friendship And

1 The astragal was a bone of the hinder feet of cloven-footed animals. Plin. Nat. Hist. b. xi. c. 45, 46.

2 Jacobi Nicholai Loensis Miscell. Epiphill. p. iv. c. 19. Samuelis Petiti Miscell. b. ii. c. i. Note on v. 613. Euripid. Medea, Ecvois re neμnelv ovμßod', oi Spasovos

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3 Mr. Dodwell's Classical Tour in Greece, vol. i. p. 519. Plautus, in his play called Pænulus, (act 5. sc. 2.) represents Hanno the Carthaginian, as retaining a symbol of hospitality reciprocally with Antidamas of Calydon; but Antidamas being dead, he addresses himself to his son Agorastocles, and says:

"Si ita est, tesseram

Conferre, si vis, hospitalem-eccam attuli."

Agorastocles answers :

"Agedum hoc ostende, est par probe, nam habeo domum."

To which Hanno :

"O mi hospes, salve multum, nam mihi tuus pater

Pater tuus ergo hospes Antidamas fuit;

Hæc mihi hospitalis tessera cum illo fuit."

Agorastocles proceeds :

"Ergo hic apud me hospitium tibi præbebitur."

"If this be the case, here is the tally of hospitality, which I have brought; compare it if you please.-Show it me; it is indeed the tally to that which I have at home;-My dear host, you are heartily welcome; for your father Antidamas was my host; this was the token of hospitality between him and me; and you shall therefore be kindly received in my house." Ibid. p. 520,

to this sense the following words very well agree, which describe this stone or tessera, as having in it a new name written, which no man knoweth, saving he that receiveth it. For, as the name in the Roman tessera was not that of the person who wrote it, but of his friend who possessed it, so it was only known to the possessor, who doubtless kept it both privately and with great care, that no other person might enjoy the benefit of it, which was designed only for himself and his family.1

1 Ward's Dissertations upon several passages of the Sacred Scriptures, pp. 229232. London, 1759. 8vo.

CHAPTER VII.

ON THE OCCUPATIONS, ARTS, AND SCIENCES OF THE

HEBREWS.

SECTION I.

AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE OF THE JEWS.

1. Agriculture of the Jews.--II. Manures known and used by them. -III. Their mode of ploughing, sowing, and reaping.--IV. Different ways of threshing out Corn.-V. Vineyards, and the Culture of the Vine and Olive.-Gardens.

1. JUDEA was eminently an agricultural country; and all the Mosaic statutes were admirably calculated to encourage agriculture as the chief foundation of national prosperity, and also to preserve the Jews detached from the surrounding idolatrous nations. After they had acquired possession of the promised land, the Jews applied themselves wholly to agriculture and the tending of cattle, following the example of their ancestors, the patriarchs, who (like the Arabs, Bedouins, Turcomans, and numerous tribes of eastern Asia,) were generally husbandmen and shepherds, and whose chief riches consisted in cattle, slaves, and the fruits of the earth. Adam brought up his two sons to husbandry, Cain to the tilling of the ground, and Abel to the feeding of sheep. (Gen. iv. 2.) Jabal was a grazier of cattle, of whom it is said, that he was the father of such as dwell in tents, (ver. 20.), that is, he travelled with his cattle from place to place, and for that end invented the use of tents, which he carried with him for shelter. Abraham and Lot must have had vast herds of cattle, when they were obliged to separate because the land could not contain them (Gen. xiii. 6.); and strifes between the different villagers and herdsmen of Syria still exist, as well as in the days of those patriarchs.1 Jacob also must have had a great number, since he could afford a present to his brother Esau of five hundred and eighty head of cattle. (Gen. xxxii. 13-17.)2 It was their great flocks of cattle which

1 Richardson's Travels along the Mediterranean, vol. ii. p. 196.

2 The following description of the removal of an Arab horde will afford the reader a lively idea of the primitive manners of the patriarchs. "It was entertaining enough to see the horde of Arabs decamp, as nothing could be more regular. First went the sheep and goatherds, each with their flocks in divisions, according as the chief of each family directed; then followed the camels and asses, loaded with the tents, furniture, and kitchen utensils; these were followed by the old men, women, boys, and girls, on foot. The children that cannot walk are carried on the backs of the young women, or the boys and girls; and the smallest of the lambs and kids are carried under the arms of the children. To each tent belong many dogs, among which are some greyhounds; some tents have from ten to fourteen dogs, and from twenty to thirty men, women and children, belonging to it. The procession is closed by the chief of the tribe, whom they call Emir and Father

VOL. III

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made them in those primitive times put such a price upon wells. These were possessions of inestimable value in a country where it seldom rained, and where there were but few rivers or brooks, and therefore it is no wonder that we read of so many contests about them.

In succeeding ages we find, that the greatest and wealthiest men did not disdain to follow husbandry, however mean that occupation is now accounted.1 Moses, the great lawgiver of the Israelites, was a shepherd. Shamgar was taken from the herd to be a judge in Israel, and Gideon from his threshing floor (Judg. vi. 11.), as were Jair and Jephthah from the keeping of sheep. When Saul received the news of the danger to which the city of Jabesh-gilead was exposed, he was coming after the herd out of the field, notwithstanding lie was a king. (1 Sam. xi. 5.) And king David, from feeding the ewes great with young, was brought to feed Jacob his people and Israel his inheritance. (Psal. lxxviii. 71.) King Uzziah is said to be a lover of husbandry (2 Chron. xxvi. 10.); and some of the prophets were called from that employment to the prophetic dignity, as Elisha was from the plough (1 Kings xix. 19.), and Amos from being a herdsman. But the tending of the flocks was not confined to the men :2 in the primitive ages, rich and noble women were accustomed to keep sheep, and to draw water, as well as those of inferior quality. Thus, Rebecca, the daughter of Bethuel, Abraham's brother, carried a pitcher, and drew water (Gen. xxiv. 15. 19.), as the women of Palestine still generally do; Rachel, the daughter of Laban, kept her father's sheep (Gen. xxix. 9.); and Zipporah, with her six sisters, had the care of their father Jethro's flocks, who was a prince or

(emir means prince), mounted on the very best horse, and surrounded by the heads of each family, all on horses, with many servants on foot. Between each family is a division or space of one hundred yards, or more when they migrate ; and such great regularity is observed, that neither camels, asses, sheep, nor dogs, mix, but each keeps to the division to which it belongs, without the least trouble. They had been here eight days, and were going four hours' journey to the northwest, to another spring of water. This tribe consisted of about eight hundred and fifty men, women, and children. Their flocks of sheep and goats were about five thousand, besides a great number of camels, horses, and asses. Horses and greyhounds they breed and train up for sale: they neither kill nor sell their ewe lambs. At set times a chapter in the Koran is read by the chief of each family, either in or near each tent, the whole family being gathered round, and very attentive." Parsons's Travels from Aleppo to Bagdad, pp. 109, 110. London, 1808. 4to.

1 Honourable as the occupation of a shepherd was among the Hebrews, it was an abomination to the Egyptians (Gen. xlvi. 34.) at the time when Jacob and his children went down into Egypt.-From the fragments of the antient historian Manetho, preserved in Josephus and Africanus, it appears, that that country had been invaded by a colony of Nomades or Shepherds, descended from Cush, who established themselves there, and had a succession of kings. After many wars between them and the Egyptians, in which some of their principal cities were burnt and great cruelties were committed, they were compelled to evacuate the country; but not till they had been in possession of it for a period of nine hundred years. This alone was sufficient to render shepherds odious to the Egyptians: but they were still more obnoxious, because they killed and ate those animals, particularly the sheep and the ox, which were accounted most sacred among them. See Bryant's Analysis of Antient Mythology, vol. vi. pp. 193-211. 8vo. edit.

2 From Hector's address to his horses, it appears that his wife, Andromache, though a princess, did not think it beneath her dignity to feed those animals her. Iliad. viii. 185-189.

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