Alaska

duced from 1867 until 1911, $206,813,594 in minerals, and $222,710,036 in sea and fur products; and has paid into the Treasury of the United States from customs, internal revenue, and license taxes, and other cash items, $17,117,355, making a total production and export from Alaska to the United States of $446,640,985. On the other side of the balance sheet is the $7,200,000 which the Government of the United States paid to Russia for Alaska in 1867. The total moneys expended by the United States in Alaska from 1867 to 1911 in maintaining the National Government there, collecting customs and the revenues, maintaining the courts, the fur-seal fisheries, boundary commissions, and in other items of governmental expense, have amounted to $35,816,674. This leaves a difference between the productions of Alaska and the amount the Government of the United States has expended therein of $410,824,311.

BANKS.-On Sept. 1, 1911, there were 2 national banks in Alaska, with $100,000 capital, $35,000 surplus, $767,006 deposits, $62,500 outstanding circulation, $425,447 loans, and $1,362,800 total resources. There were 13 Territorial banks, with $1,075,800 capital, $68,903 surplus, $3,822,990 deposits, $2,710,858 loans, and $5,096,126 total resources.

to

POPULATION.-According the U. S. Census for 1910, Alaska's population is 64,356. This is apportioned among the various races: White, 36,347; Indian, 25,331; Negro, 209; Chinese, 1,209; Japanese, 913; and all others, 347.

The Eskimos inhabit the northern coasts, while the Indians are found in the interior, and on the southern coasts and islands. The Eskimos seem to be decreasing. Many of them are employed in the Nome region, and they have been greatly assisted by the introduction and naturalization of Russian reindeer by the U. S. Government. The Indians are of four native tribes-Tinkits, Athapascans,

Metlakatlas, and Haidas. They are employed in fisheries, and as helpers in mines, mills, and on steamboats, while in winter they do a large part of the local transportation by dog train.

In 1910 the largest towns were: Fairbanks, 3,541; Nome, 2,600; Douglas, 1,722; Juneau (capital), 1,644; Ketchikan, 1,613; Treadwell, 1,222; Cordova, 1,152; Sitka, 1,039; Skagway, 872; Valdez, 810; Wrangell, 743.

Vol. I.-Oct. '12

Alaskan Coast, and Alexander
Archipelago.

gressional appropriations, and are under the management of the U. S. Bureau of Education, which during 1912 maintained 86 schools and employed 110 teachers, 7 physicians, and 6 nurses-at a total expenditure of $200,000. In addition, several religious denominations maintain mission schools at various points.

GOVERNMENT.-Alaska has executive and judicial officers, but no legislative body, its laws being enacted by the Congress of the United States. The officers (all appointed by the President of the United States) are a gov

Alaska

ernor, residing at Juneau (to which place the capital was transferred in 1906), judges, commissioners (who are magistrates), marshals, etc. Alaska is represented in the United States Congress by a delegate without a vote, elected by males who have resided in the Territory for more than one year. Towns with a population of 300 or more may incorporate for local self-govern

ment.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.-Consult Harriman Alaska Expedition (3 vols., 1901-3); Foster's The Alaskan Boundary (1904); Baker's Geographic Dictionary of Alaska (1906); Brooks' Geography and Geology of Alaska (1906); Greely's Handbook of Alaska (1909); publications of the U. S. Government (Geological Survey, Bureau of Fisheries, War Department, Bureau of Education, and Thirteenth Census); Reports of the Governor of Alaska.

HISTORY.-The earliest historical date connected with Alaska is 1648, when Deshneff, rounding Asia, navigated Bering Strait. In 1731, Gwosdeff discovered the Alaskan Coast. But

the discovery of Alaska is generally accredited to Vitus Bering, a Danish navigator in the employ of Russia, who, with Chirikov, reached that part of the coast dominated by Mount Saint Elias in 1741. He also visited several of the Aleutian Islands, finally meeting death on the one which bears his name. In 1761, Pushkaref went to the Alaskan main land, and spent the winter there. The activity of the Russian trappers and fur traders who entered the country attracted other nations, and in 1774-5 Spanish expeditions visited the southeastern coast.

In 1778 the English navigator Cook, while in search of the Northwest Passage, explored the coast as far as Bering Strait. The Russian trading companies in 1784 made the first permanent settlement, at Three Saints, on Kodiak Island. The consolidation of all the trading companies was authorized by Emperor Paul in 1799, and a new company, known as the Russian-American Company, was chartered. This company established trading posts at Sitka (1799) and other points, and began an extensive trade with the natives, which was afterward extended to China and the Atlantic ports of the United States. It maintained full control of Alaska until 1862, when, owing to the abuses of its administration, further renewal of its charter was refused. The Russian Govern

Alaska

ment, however, took no steps to abolish the company, and it remained in control. Communications regarding the transfer of Alaska to the United States had for some years passed between the two governments, and in 1867 deñaite negotiations were opened. On Oct. 18, 1867, the formal cession took place at Sitka, the United States having agreed to pay $7,200,000 for the territory. The fisheries of Alaska were long regarded as the chief source of wealth, and it was not until the discovery of gold along the Yukon (1896), which led to a large immigration and resulted in the unfolding of other extensive resources, that the commercial importance of Alaska was realized. Soon afterward the dispute over the boundary between Alaska and Canada became acute. In 1903, a commission on which the United States, Canada, and Great Britain were represented decided the principal points in favor of the United States. (See ALASKA BOUNDARY DISPUTE.)

The growth of Alaska during the last decade has been disappointing, largely due to the lack of a settled policy on the part of the United States. In 1901 great coal beds were discovered, of which the Matanuska and the Bering River fields are most important. The United States coal land laws, extended to Alaska in 1900 and 1904, allowed individual entry of only 160 acres; though by the law of 1908, four men were allowed to group their entries into a tract of one square mile. Nearly 1,000 entries were made, a majority fraudulently, by men who had never seen the land; and three syndicates secured control of these entries-if, indeed, they did not cause them to be made. In 1906, President Roosevelt, on account of this fact, ordered all coal lands withdrawn from entry, and on none of these entries have patents giving possession been issued. One of these syndicates, generally known as the Cunningham claimants, in 1907 formed a connection with the Guggenheim interests, which had already secured control of a large proportion of the gold and copper of the territory, and also had purchased the claims of another syndicate. Desperate attempts to secure full possession of the lands have been made. Charges of improper action on the part of high government officials have led to the Ballinger - Pinchot controversy (see CONSERVATION), and the matter is yet (March, 1911) undecided.

The population in the placer mining section has declined owing to the exhaustion of the richer placers, but there has been a compensating increase along the southern coast, where railroads to the Bering River and Matanuska coal fields and to the Chitina valley are under construction (1911). It is expected that with the completion of these

131

railroads, and the opening of the coal mines, a permanent community will be established north of the Coast Range Mountains, and new mining industries will spring up, bringing a large addition to the white population.

The Government is aiding in the development of the Territory by conducting experiment stations under the direction of the Department of Agriculture for the testing of grains and other seeds suitable to the climate; and a breeding station for Galloway cattle from Southwestern Scotland has been located on Kodiak Island. The Coast, Geological, and Geodetic Surveys continue their work, and the extension of the lighthouse system affords a larger and mu needed protection to coasting mariners.

Numerous tracts of land have been located under the Homestead law of 1903, but these locations have been mainly speculative, and few developments have been made.

The people of Alaska have demanded full Territorial government, hoping soon to secure admission as a State; but President Taft has recommended government by a commission similar in form to the Philippine Commission. Congress has taken no action, and meanwhile population and industry are almost stationary, awaiting a declaration of government policy.

Consult U. S. Government Reports; Ella Higginson's Alaskathe Great Country (1909).

Alaska

Boundary Dispute. Owing to the indefinite manner in which the boundary between Alaska and Canada was described in the Russo-British treaty of 1825, considerable difference of opinion as to its exact position long existed. When Alaska was acquired by the United States in 1867, the latter fell heir to the Russian claims. Although attempts were made by Great Britain and the United States to arrive at a definite settlement of the dispute, it was not until the discovery and settlement of the rich mineral lands in the Yukon district that wide public interest was aroused. In 1903, Great Britain and the United States agreed to refer the dispute to a judicial board composed of six impartial jurists of repute, of whom three should be Americans and three British, the questions at issue to be settled by a majority vote of the six members. Their decision, which was published in October of the same year, was mainly favorable to the American contentions. (See map on page 129.) Consult Report of the Alaskan Boundary Commission.

Alaska-Yukon-Pacific-Exposition. See EXHIBITIONS.

Alastor, in Greek mythology, a name applied to any avenging demon, but principally to Zeus.

Ala-tau, four mountain ranges in the Russian (Asiatic) province of

Albacete

Semiryechensk: The Kunghei Alatau and the Trans-Ili Ala-tau stretch east and west on the north side of Lake Issyk-kul (alt. 6,000 to 13,000 ft.); the Terskei Ala-tau lies parallel to them on the south side of the lake; the Dzungarian Ala-tau stretches farther to the north, and reaches 11,000 ft.

Alatri, town, province Rome, Italy, 45 m. southeast of Rome, with remains of Cyclopean walls. Manufactures of tapestry and cloth. Close by is the Carthusian monastery of Trisulti. Pop. (est. 1909) 17,000.

Alatyr, town of Russia, Simbirsk government, 102 m. northwest of Simbirsk. Large grain trade. Pop. (est. 1909) 14,000.

Alatyr River, in East Russia (Volga basin), rises in the Penza hills, flows east across Nijni-Novgorod government, and falls into the Sura at Alatyr.

Alausi, town, province of Chimborazo, Ecuador, on Alausi River, about 60 m. east of Guayaquil; hot springs; valley produces grain and fruit. Pop. 6,000.

Alaux, JEAN, called LE ROMAIN (1786-1864), French painter, studied under Vincent and Guérin, and in 1815 won the Grand Prix de Rome with Briscïs Finding the Body of Patroclus. He was at the head of the French Academy at Rome (1847-50).

Alava, province, North Spain, one of the three formerly autonomous Basque provinces; intersected by river Zadorra (tributary of Ebro), and traversed by North of Spain Ry. Pop. 100,000. Capital Vitoria.

Alava, MIGUEL RICARDO DE (1771-1843), served first in the navy, then in the army, of Spain. During 1808-11 he fought on the side of the French; then joined the Spanish independents, and served under Wellington, who gave him command of a brigade. Later he was Spanish ambassador in the Netherlands (1819), London (1834), and Paris (1835). In 1822 he was elected president of the Cortes.

Alb, or ALBE, an ecclesiastical garment in use since the fourth century, though now commonly worn in the Roman Catholic Church only. It consists of a vestment of white linen (symbolic of purity), fastened with a girdle. The surplice (q.v.) is a modification of it.

Alba, town and episcopal see, province Cuneo, Italy, on the Tanaro, 42 m. by rail southwest of Alessandria; manufactures silk. Its cathedral dates from 1486. Pop. 15,000.

Albacete, province in southeast of Spain, formerly part of kingdom of Murcia; traversed by main line railway from Madrid to Murcia. Pop. 250,000.

Albacete, capital of province of same name, on main line railway

Alba Longa

from Madrid to Murcia, 184 m. from Madrid; famous for cutlery; centre of great agricultural district. Pop. 22,000.

the

Alba Longa, the ancient political and religious capital of Latin League, was built on a ridge above Lake Albano, 20 m, east of Rome. It was destroyed during the reign of Tullus Hostilius, and its inhabitants removed to Rome. Good reasons have been advanced for placing the site of the ancient city on the south of the lake, near Castel Gandolfo and the ancient Bovillæ.

Alban, ST., the first British martyr, was born at Verulamium in the third century. After a journey to Rome, in company with Amphibalus, he adopted the Christian religion, and suffered martyrdom in 286 or 303, during the reign of Diocletian. Offa, king of the Mercians, erected in his memory a monastery near Verulamium, and around it grew up the town of St. Albans (q.v.).

Alban Hills, in Italy, a volcanic range which overlooks the Campagna, 15 to 20 m. cast of Rome. The slopes of the hills (2,500 ft.) are for the most part covered with woods, groves, and orchards, and the tops crowned with numerous small towns-e.g., Albano, Ariccia, Frascati, Castel Gandolfo, Genzano. Ón the south edge of the girdle are the crater lakes of Albano and Nemi. Lake Albano, about 6 m. in circumference, lies 960 ft. above sea-level. The water in the lake is regulated by ancient artificial sluice and outflow channel. The Mons Albanus of the ancients was the isolated volcanic cone Monte Cavo (3,115 ft.). Roman generals to whom a triumphal entry into Rome was not accorded used to make a military parade up the Alban Mount to the great temple on its summit.

an

Albani, a Roman family who in the 15th century were driven by the Turks from Albania, and took refuge in Italy. They produced five cardinals and a Pope -viz., Clement XI. (1700). The most important members of the family are: ANNIBALE ALBANI (1682-1750), cardinal, author of Memorie sopra la Citta d'Urbino (1724). ALESSANDRO ALBANI (1692-1779), cardinal, antiquary, and literary patron. His home, the Villa Albani, contains a valuable collection of works of art.GIOVANNI FRANCESCO ALBANI (1720-1809), bishop of Ostia, and cardinal when only twenty-seven. -GIOVANNI GEROLAMO ALBANI (1504-91), cardinal, author of several works on jurisprudence.GIUSEPPE ALBANI (1750-1834), cardinal, a patron of music. See Tipaldo's Biografia Italiana.

Albani, or ALBANO, FRANCESCO (1578-1660), Bolognese painter; studied at the celebrated school

132

of Ludovico Caracci, and later at Rome. He was the first Italian to paint cabinet pictures. He is represented in the Louvre by twenty-two religious and classical pictures; nine of his works are in Florence, ten in Dresden, and others are in London, Milan, Turin, and St. Petersburg. See Radcliffe's Schools and Masters of Painting (1898).

Albani, MADAME (née MARIE LOUISE EMMA CECILIA LAJEUNESSE) (1852), celebrated soprano vocalist; was born at Chambly, near Montreal, Canada; was trained by her father, Joseph Lajeunesse, a native of Brittany, who was a professional harpist; made her first appearance in public when eight years of age, and at fourteen was leading soprano at the Roman Catholic cathedral, Albany, N. Y. She afterward studied at Paris and Milan; made her début in opera in 1870 at Messina in La Sonnambula, and afterward won a great reputation both in oratorio and opera in the United States and Europe.

Albani, MATTHIAS (1621-73), celebrated Tyrolese violin maker, a native of Bozen, was trained by Stainer. His son MATTHIAS gained experience under the great violin makers of Cremona, and settled at Rome.

Albania, an ethnographical rather than a geographical region in the west of European Turkey, draining toward the Adriatic and Ionian Seas, and extending from Montenegro in the north to the Gulf of Arta in the south, and from the Adriatic to the Shar Dagh and its extensions southward. The country is mountainous and rugged in the interior, and swampy and unhealthful toward the coast. It consists of the vilayets of Janina in the south, Scutari in the north, and part of Monastir and Kossovo toward the east. The Drin is the chief river. The principal lakes are Scutari, Okhrida, and Janina.

The inhabitants of Albania (called by themselves Shkipetars, and by the Turks Arnauts) are given to intertribal feuds and brigandage. Formerly all Christians, many have become Mohammedans; some are Roman Catholics, others belong to the Greek Church. Olives, hides, and wool are exported, chiefly at Durazzo, Avlona, Parga, and Prevesa, at entrance of Gulf of Arta, south of Epirus. The chief towns are Scutari, in the north, Janina, in the south, and Prizrend, at the entrance of Shar Dagh Pass, which was formerly the capital of the Servian kings. The Albanians number about 1,500,000.

In antiquity this region was called Illyria. In the second century B.C. it became a Roman province. In the Middle Ages it was invaded and settled by various Slav

Albany

tribes. When the Turks invaded Europe, the Albanians fought stubbornly for their independence. The hero of this period is Scanderbeg (q.v.), who fought successfully against the Turks from 1443-67. In 1478 Albania became a Turkish province. From 1807-22 it was practically independent under the rule of Ali Pasha (called the Lion of Janina), known from Byron's life and poems.

Though the Albanian recruits to the Turkish army are considered excellent soldiers, in the region itself revolts have been frequent. The country shares with Macedonia the traditional Balkan reputa tion for disorder. A serious revolt was quelled with difficulty in 19034; and at present (1911) armed resistance to the nationalist policy of the new government of Turkey is widespread, in spite of the fact that in June, 1910, a proclamation of the suppression of the revolt was issued.

LANGUAGE.-The Albanian language belongs to the Indo-European family of languages. Among the principal works of Albanian literature is Gerolamo de Rada's Poesie Albanesi (Corigliano, 1889); while his collection of popular songs under the title Rapsodie di un Poema Albanese (Florence, 1866), celebrating the heroic past of the nation, forms one of the best folklore collections extant. At the present day, Constantin Kristoforidis has published a good grammar of both Gegh and Tosk dialects, and has translated the Bible into Tosk. See Hahn's Albanesische Studien (1854); Miklosich's Albanische Forschungen; Pedersen's Albanesische Texte (1895).

Albano, or ALBANO LAZIALE, town and episcopal sce, Italy, 19 m. east of Rome, on the south slope of the Alban Hills; 1,230 ft. above sea level. It is a favorite summer resort of the inhabitants of Rome. Pop. 10,000.

Albany, capital of New York State, county seat of Albany co., on the west bank of the Hudson River, 145 m. north of New York City, and on the Boston and Albany (terminus), the N. Y. Central & H. R., the West Shore, the Boston & Maine, the Delaware & Hudson RRS., and the Erie and Champlain canals, 200 m. west of Boston, 297 m. east of Buffalo. Both historically and commercially it has been from early colonial days one of the important towns of America. At the junction of several great railroads, at the head of navigation for large steamboats of the Hudson River, and the terminal point of the Erie Canal, it is a distributing centre for a great body of commerce, a passenger junction of high importance, and a centre of varied and numerous manufactures. It has well-paved streets (among them State street, leading to the