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Among the public buildings is Capitol, on Capitol the State Square (begun 1871, and recently completed), the result of designs by several architects, built

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a cost of more than $25,000,000. It is a French Renaissance building, of white granite, set at the top of a hill, the culminating structure among several others; and although not without architectural faults, is still one of the most imposing buildings in America. It includes administration offices and the chambers of the legislature, and moreover the rooms of the Court of Appeals and the State library of more than 508,000 volumes, 265,000 manuscripts, and 366,000 pamphlets. The interior decoration is exceedingly rich; the grand staircase of red sandstone in the western wing is one of the finest stairways in the world. The approach to the Capitol is an imposing flight of steps more than 100 feet broad. Northwest of the Capitol the new State Education Building is approaching completion, the first of its kind in the United States. Its far-stretching façade of white marble, with massive columns and solid crowning wall, promises grandeur and beauty most impressive. It will be the visible embodiment of that University of the State of New York whose name is a concept for the Empire State's vast educational interests and activities. In it the Regents of the University, the Commissioner of Education, the State Library, and the State Museum will find place. Its auditorium will seat 1,000 people, and its stacks will house 2,000,000 volumes. Across Capitol Square are the City Hall (French Gothic, designed by Richardson) of red sandstone, and the State Hall of white marble.

Among the other notable buildings are the new State Normal College, the Museum of Natural History, the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception, All Saints' Cathedral, St. Peter's Episcopal Church, with a fine tower, the Temple Beth Emeth, Harmanus Bleecker Hall, the Fort Orange Club, the University Club, the State Arsenal, the State Penitentiary, the Dudley Observatory, the graduate schools (medicine, law, and pharmacy) of Union College, the Bender Laboratory, a vent of the Sacred Heart, the Albany Academy for Girls, the Albany Boys' Academy, St. Agnes' School, and 21 public school buildings. The city has made arrangements to build a new high school near the State Normal College.

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Albany is among the oldest chartered towns in the United States, having been incorporated as a city in 1686. It became the capital of the State of New York in 1797. Early in the seventeenth century the site of the present city was occupied as a trading post by the Dutch, though actual settlement was not made until 1624, when some Walloon families came to the place and a rude fort, called Orange, or Nassau, was erected for their protection. Two years later settlement was interrupted by war breaking out between the Mohawk and Mohegan tribes. In consequence, the Walloons had to withdraw for a time to New Amsterdam, at the mouth of the Hudson, or the North River, as the Dutch called it. Meantime, the New Netherland colony was recruited by the arrival of many Patroon families, some of whom found their way up the great river and resettled Albany, or Beaverwyck, as it was then called. In 1646, the name Beaverwyck was changed to Williamstadt, to give place in 1664 to its present name in honor of the Duke of York and Albany (afterward James II.

banks of the river in the neighborhood of the future city and leased the lands to settlers.

During the remainder of the seventeenth and the greater part of the eighteenth centuries, the progress of Albany was slow. In the later period this was the result, in the main, of the struggle between the French and the English for the mastery of the continent, a period of bitter strife, in which the Indian tribes ranged themselves on both sides and embittered the struggle by their savage atrocities. When the era of the Revolution came, the town awoke to new life. This we see in the importance given to the town as the meeting-place of delegates from the Colonies in 1754, when the Convention of Albany passed resolutions in favor of a union for security and defence, to be followed soon after by other momentous events as the result of the oppression of the mother country. Its great prosperity began with the completion of the Erie Canal (1825). Within recent years the appearance of the city has greatly changed; the colonial houses with gable ends facing the streets have given place

Albany

to business buildings or to elaborate residences, and new residence districts have extended the home area.

Albany, city, Georgia, county seat of Dougherty co., on the Atlantic Coast Line, Seaboard Air Line, Cent. of Ga., and other RRs., and on the Flint R., 107 m. southwest of Macon. It is the centre of a cotton-raising region. There are manufactories of cottonseed oil, bricks, fertilizers, etc. city limits have been recently extended. Pop. (1910) 8,190.

The

Albany, city, Oregon, county seat of Linn co., on the Willamette R., and on the Corvallis & Eastern and So. Pac. RRs., 79 m. south by west of Portland. It is in a fertile valley, exports grain and sandstone, and has manufactures of iron, leather, flour, furniture, etc. Pop. (1910) 4,275.

Albany, town, Delaware county, Indiana, on the Mississinewa River, and the Lake Erie & Western RR., 40 m. northwest of Richmond. There are paper, flour, and planing mills. Pop. (1910) 1,289.

Albany, city, Missouri, county seat of Gentry co., on the Grand River, and on the Iowa division of the C. B. & Q. R.R., 50 miles northeast of St. Joseph. Here are the Central Christian College and the Northwest Missouri College. Pop. (1910) 1,922.

Albany, district north of Algoa Bay, Cape Colony. Area, 1,685 sq. m. Pop. 25,000.

Albany, seaport town, north side of Princess Royal Harbor, King George Sound, West Australia; port of call for the principal lines of steamers, and a fortified coaling station. Pop. (1907) 3,000.

Albany, COUNT D', the title assumed by two brothers, John Sobieski Stolberg Stuart (17971872) and Charles Edward Stuart (1799-1880), who claimed to be the lineal descendants of the Young Pretender. They were certainly the sons of Lieut. Thomas Allen, R. N. but it has not been definitely proved that Allen was, as he contended, the son of Prince Charles Edward. Both brothers were in the service of Napoleon, and fought at Dresden, Leipzig, and Waterloo.

Albany Convention, which met at Albany, N. Y., in 1754, was rendered notable by its discussion and adoption of a plan of union for the English colonies in America. Twenty-five delegates were present, representing the colonies of New York, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Maryland; delegates from the Six Nations (Iroquois Indians) also attended. The convention was called in 1753, just before the outbreak of the Seven Years' War, at the instance of the English Lords of Trade, and its objects were the cementing of the friendship between

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the colonies and the Iroquois. Satisfactory relationships were established with the Iroquois, and a plan of intercolonial union, drafted by Benjamin Franklin, was also adopted. This plan provided for a comparatively centralized government, administered by a presidentgeneral appointed by the Crown, and a council chosen by the assemblies of the several colonies. The plan was never approved, however, either by the colonies or by the Crown. The Crown disapproved of it,' said Franklin, as having too much weight in the democratic part of the constitution; and every assembly, as having allowed too much to prerogative; so it was totally rejected.' Consult Frothingham's Rise of the Republic of the United States (1872), and for the text of the plan of the Union, N. Y. Colonial Documents (vol. vi).

Albany Regency, the name applied to a group of able politicians who from about 1820 to about 1850 controlled the Democratic Party in the State of New York, and thereby exerted a powerful influence in the political affairs both of the State and the nation. They gained and maintained their party leadership by their political sagacity, their skill in the management of men, and a thoroughgoing application of the 'spoils system.' Among the group were Martin Van Buren, W. L. Marcy, Silas Wright, and John A. Dix.

Albany River, in Ontario, Canada, issues from Lake St. Joseph, and after a course of 500 m. flows into James Bay.

Albatross, an oceanic bird of the genus Diomedea, related to the petrels; especially D. exulans, one of

The Albatross.

the largest of birds, the wings sometimes spreading 11 ft. It is a true sea-bird, following ships for great distances, and very powerful and graceful in flight. Albatrosses are rarely found on land except at the breeding season, when they resort to remote islands, where they make no proper nests, but each female incubates a single egg laid on the ground. Like many of its allies, this bird chiefly haunts the Southern oceans, though related species breed in the North Pacific. The albatrosses get their food entirely from

Albedo

the surface of the sea, picking up fishes, mollusks, and other topswimmers, dead or alive, and following ships for the sake of the offal thrown overboard.

Al-Battani, MOHAMMED BEN JABIR BEN SINAN, ABU ABDULLAH (c. 850-930), great Arabian astronomer, carried on his observations chiefly at Rakka, in Mesopotamia, from which he has also received the name 'Mohammedes Aractensis.' A brilliant mathematician, he made important advances in trigonometry. He also fixed the length of the year at 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes, 24 seconds-a calculation which was short of the true length by 2 minutes, 26 seconds. A translation of his works by Plato of Tivoli was printed at Nuremberg in 1537. See Chwolsohn's Die Ssabier (1856).

Albaugh, JOHN W. (1837-1909) American actor and theatrical manager, was born in Baltimore. He played various standard rôles, including Brutus, Louis XI., and Shylock. Afterward he managed theatres in St. Louis (1868-69), Albany (1870), New Orleans (187071), Washington, and Baltimore.

Albay, province (997 sq. m.), town, and bay, southwest extremity of Luzon, Philippine Islands. The province is of volcanic formation, and includes the volcano Mount Mayon (8,504 ft.). Along the west border of the province is the main range of Luzon. The valleys are watered by many streams, and are fertile. In the northwest is Lake Bató, into which flows the Quaya River, and out of which flows the Bicol River. In the northwest are medicinal hot springs. There are good roads. The province contains deposits of coal, gold, silver, and iron. Valuable woods are abundant, and oranges and lemons grow wild. The people weave textiles, build boats, and raise hemp in large quantities. Population (1903) 240,326, chiefly Vicol. Albay, the capital, is a seaport on the west shore of Albay Bay. It has telegraph and telephone service. Pop. (1903) 14,049.

Albedo, a term used in astronomy to signify the proportion of incident light reflected by a nonluminous surface. This is determined for the various planets. by comparing the total light received from each with the size of its visible disc and the intensity of the solar rays falling upon it. The following table gives some of the best-authenticated results, absolute whiteness being taken as 1:

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Albemarle

comparison, that new-fallen snow has an albedo of 0.78; white paper, of 0.70; gray sandstone, clay marl, and quartz porphyry, severally, of 0.24, 0.16, and 0.11.

Albemarle, county town of Stanly County, North Carolina, lies about 40 miles northeast of Charlotte, on the Southern Railway. It is the seat of the Albemarle Normal and Industrial College, and has cotton mills and gins, knitting mills, iron works, furniture factory, and lumber mills. Pop. (1900) 1,382; (1910) 2,116.

Albemarle, DUKES AND EARLS OF. See KEPPEL; MONCK.

Albemarle, THE, an ironclad ram of the Confederate navy, built hastily of green pine timber in an open corn field at Edward's Ferry, on the Roanoke River, under the direction of Commander James W. Cooke. She was sheathed with railroad iron, and mounted six guns. On April 19, 1864, she attacked single-handed the Federal squadron at Plymouth, sinking the Southfield, and doing serious damage to the other unarmored vessels. On May 5 a fleet of nine gunboats was sent to destroy her, but succeeded only in inflicting minor injuries. She was sunk on Oct. 27, 1864, by Lieut. W. B. Cushing (q. v.) and a boat's crew, who exploded a spar torpedo against her as she lay at her wharf at Plymouth.

Albemarle Island. See GAL

APAGOS.

Albemarle Sound, on the east coast of North Carolina. It extends inland in a westerly direction more than 55 miles; width, from 4 to 15 miles. The shores are everywhere low and marshy, and the entrance is closed by a sand bar. There is no tide.

Albendorf, village, Silesia, Prussia; 50 miles southwest of Breslau. It has eighteen gates named after those of Jerusalem, and a model of the Temple there, and is visited by 150,000 pilgrims annually.

Albenga (ancient Albium Ingaunum), town and episcopal see, province Genoa, Italy, on the West Riviera; 26 miles by rail southwest of Savona. It has mediæval walls and towers; remains of a Roman bridge built by the Emperor Constantius in 414-418; and a cathedral dating in part from the thirteenth century. Pop. 6,500.

Alberl, EUGENIO (1817-78), Italian historian, was born in Padua. In 1839 he published Guerre d' Italia del Principe Eugenio di Savoia, which was much admired for the historical knowlVOL. I.-Mar. '13

135

edge and scholarship displayed. Other works are Vita di Caterina de Medici (1838); Relazioni degli Ambasciatori Veneti al Senato (1839). He founded the Annuario Storico Universale (1843), and was an advocate of liberal principles. His last work was Il Problema dell' Umano Destino (1872).

Alberni, lumber-shipping port and inlet on Pacific coast of Vancouver Island, British North America. The inlet is 20 miles long, and from 1⁄2 to 1 mile wide, with a fine natural harbor at its head.

His

Alberoni, GIULIO (1664–1752), Spanish statesman, was born in Firenzuola, Parma, the son of an Italian gardener. During the war of the Spanish Succession he served under Vendôme; and in 1713 he was appointed agent of the Duke of Parma at the court of Philip v. of Spain, where he ingratiated himself with the king, and eventually became cardinal and prime minister. policy aimed, first, at checking the decline of Spain by drastic reforms and by the development of her resources; and, secondly, at annulling the Treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt, as being subversive of the balance of power, and disastrous to Spain and Italy. Between 1715 and 1717, under his vigorous policy of reorganization and reform, commerce revived, the revenue was increased, and manufactures flourished. His opposition to provincial as well as to class privilege, however, made him very unpopular with the Spanish nobles.

Alberoni's ambitious foreign policy, in which, backed by the queen (Elizabeth Farnese), he aimed at reannexing Milan, Naples, Sardinia, and Sicily to the Spanish crown, and the Spanish occupation of Sardinia in 1717, gave rise to a quadruple alliance against Spain between England, France, Austria, and Holland. This resulted in the destruction of the Spanish fleet by the British fleet, under Byng, in the Battle of Cape Passaro (1718). At length, under pressure from the allies, Philip dismissed his minister in December, 1719. After his departure from Spain, Alberoni's life has few points of interest. He took part in the election of Innocent XII. Clement XII. made him legate of Ravenna; but in 1740 he retired to Piacenza, where he founded a college, and where he died. Consult Maccall's Foreign Biographies (2 vols.); Rousset de Missy's History of Cardinal Alberoni; Bersani's Storia del Cardinale Giulio Alberoni.

Albert I.

Albert, district north of Cape of Good Hope, bounded by the Orange River. The whole country lies high, and has a cold climate in winter. There are coal mines in the district. Capital, Burghersdorp. Area, 2,635 square miles. Pop. 17,000.

Albert, town, department Somme, France, on the River Ancre; 18 miles northeast of Amiens. It has cotton spinning and manufactures of paper, cast iron, and beet-root sugar. Pop. (1901) 7,348; (1911) 7,343.

Albert (1490-1568), son of the margrave of Ansbach, nephew of Sigismund, king of Poland. He became last grand master of the Teutonic Order in 1512. He refused to do homage to the king of Poland, who in 1519 declared war, which was concluded by a four years' truce in 1521. Four years later, Albert, now a zealous reformer, made a treaty with his uncle, and became hereditary duke of Prussia under the Polish crown, with the right of succession to the estates of the Teutonic Order. Thereafter he devoted himself to his dukedom, establishing schools and the Königsberg University. Consult Lohmeyer's Herzog Albrecht von Preussen.

Albert (1522-58), margrave of Brandenburg, surnamed 'The German Alcibiades.' He fought in the cause of the Emperor Charles v. in 1544, and subsequently in that of the king of France. Returning to his former allegiance, his conduct in Germany earned for him so much hatred that a league was formed against him. Defeated in a conflict with his enemies, he was placed under the ban of the empire, and died a victim of his

own excesses.

Albert (1559–1621), archduke of Austria, surnamed 'The Pious,' sixth son of the Emperor Maximilian II. Brought up at the Spanish court, he entered the church, and became cardinal (1577), archbishop of Toledo (1584), and viceroy of Portugal (1594). In 1596 he was appointed stadtholder of the Netherlands, and carried on the war against the revolted people. Defeated at Nieuwpoort, he took Ostend (1604) after a three years' siege, and concluded a twelve years' truce with the Dutch (1609). He ruled with justice and moderation until his death.

Albert I. (1875), king of Belgium, nephew of Leopold II., whom he succeeded to the throne in December, 1909. Of an active temperament, he has travelled extensively, visiting the western part of America in 1899. He

Albert I.

also journeyed through the Congo, and became a warm advocate of reforms in that country. In 1900 he married Princess Elisabeth of Bavaria, and to them three children have been born, Princes Leopold and Charles, and Princess Maria-José.

King Albert signalized his accession to the throne by cancelling contracts for costly and needless public works, and setting apart a fund to be used in discovering a remedy for the sleeping sickness of the Congo. He has taken an active part in the work of commercial and workingmen's associations, holding the office of president in many of them.

Albert I. (1250-1308), duke of Austria and German Emperor, eldest son of Rudolph of Hapsburg. His arrogant claim to the throne on the death of his father in 1292 was met by the election of Adolphus of Nassau, who was deposed in 1298, and in the same year defeated and slain by his rival. Albert was elected and crowned (1298), and first joined France against the Pope, and then the Pope against France. Wars with the Netherlands, Hungary, and Bohemia followed. His despotic measures in Switzerland provoked (1308) the revolution which led to the formation of the Swiss Confederation. Albert's refusal to recognize the claim of his nephew, Don John, to the dukedom of Swabia aroused a conspiracy against him, and he was murdered.

Albert I. (1100-70), duke of Brandenburg, called 'The Bear,' founder of the house of Anhalt. He succeeded his father in 1123, and in 1125 became duke of the Ostmark and Lusatia. In 1134 he was invested by the Emperor with the province of the Nordmark, or the territories on the left bank of the Elbe taken from the Slavs. These Albert transformed into a German province. In 1147 he undertook a crusade against the Wends; and in 1150 came into possession of the margravate of Brandenburg, and took the title of Duke of Brandenburg. 1169 he resigned in favor of his eldest son.

In

Albert III. (1414-86), surnamed ACHILLES, and also ULYSSES, third son of Frederick I.. elector of Brandenburg, whom he succeeded (1440) in the principality of Ansbach. From his brother John he inherited the principality of Bayreuth in 1464; and in 1470 received the electorate of Brandenburg from his brother Frederick II. Under his rule the Franconian lands VOL. I.-Mar. '13

136

were reunited with Brandenburg. He effectually resisted the attempts of the Teutonic knights to repossess themselves of the Neumark, and engaged in successful wars with Mecklenburg and Pomerania. He wrote the Dispositio Achillea, a family ordinance which provided for the future separation of Brandenburg and Ansbach-Bayreuth; and, according to Hallam, first legally established primogeniture.

Albert III. (1443–1500), duke of Saxony, surnamed 'The Bold,' younger son of the Elector Frederick (1443-1500), passed a portion of his early life at the court of Frederick III. in Vienna. On their father's death, the brothers Ernest and Albert ruled Saxony in partnership; but subsequently, by the agreement of Leipzig (1485), Ernest received Thuringia, and Albert Meissen. A brave and accomplished soldier, Albert fought in the wars of Frederick of Austria against Charles the Bold (Duke of Burgundy) and others. His intervention on behalf of Maximilian I. gained him the stadtholdership of the Netherlands, as well as the hereditary governorship of Friesland. He was the founder of the present royal house of Saxony. See ALBERTINE LINE.

Albert V. (1490-1545), archbishop of Magdeburg and elector of Mainz, commonly known as ALBERT OF BRANDENBURG, was the second son of the elector, John Cicero of Brandenburg. He entered holy orders; became in 1513 archbishop of Magdeburg; in 1514 archbishop and elector of Mainz; and in 1518 cardinal. He was one of the principal adversaries of the Reformation, and Luther attacked him in a pamphlet, though at first Albert had tried to bring about reconciliation between the two parties. In return for the payment of 500,000 florins he granted his Protestant subjects in the see of Magdeburg the free exercise of their religion. He was the first German prince to admit the newly created order of the Jesuits into his dominions; and he took a prominent part in the preparation for the religious wars which broke out shortly after his death.

Albert, ALEXANDRE MARTIN (1815-95), French political leader, played an active part in the revolution of February, 1848. He became a member of the provisional government, and presided over the commission for the organization of Louis Blanc's national workshops. He represented the department of the Seine in the Assembly, but suf

Albert

fered ten years' imprisonment for a political offence. In the Siege of Paris, in 1870, he served on the Commission of Barricades.

Albert, EDUARD (1841-1900), Austrian surgeon, was born in Senftenberg, Bohemia. He studied at Vienna, where, in 1881, he became professor of clinical surgery, after acting as professor of surgery at Innsbruck. Results of his important researches appear in his Beiträge zur Geschichte der Chirurgie (1878); Beiträge zur operativen Chirurgie (1878-80); Lehrbuch der Chirurgie (1889-91); Diagnostik der chirurgischen Krankheiten (1890); Zur Theorie der Skoliose (1890).

Albert, EUGEN FRANCIS CHARLES D' (1864), pianist and composer, was born in Glasgow, the son of a French musician. He was trained first by his father, and subsequently in London under Sir Arthur Sullivan and others; but he owes much to Liszt and Hans Richter. With the latter he went to Vienna in 1881, where he achieved marked success. His compositions include the operas Ghismonda (1895); Die Abreise (1898); Kain (1900). Tiefland (1903); Flauto Solo (1905); Der Geborgte Ehemann (1907). He is court pianist to the king of Saxony.

Albert, FRANCIS CHARLES AUGUSTUS EMANUEL (1819 - 61), Prince Consort, husband of Queen Victoria of England, was the younger of the two sons of Ernest, Duke of Saxe-CoburgGotha. He was educated at Brussels and Bonn (1836-8), where he showed himself an ardent student, acquired many accomplishments, and developed a taste for music and the fine arts. King Leopold and Baron Stockmar had long contemplated an alliance between Prince Albert and Princess Victoria, and the pair were brought together in 1836. When the succession of Victoria was assured the betrothal took place, and on Feb. 10, 1840, the marriage-which was one of real affection on both sides was solemnized in the Chapel Royal, St. James' Palace. The Prince Consort's position as the husband of a constitutional sovereign was difficult, and in the early years of his married life his interference in matters of state was resented. Ultimately he became 'a sort of minister, without portfolio, of art and education,' and in this capacity won much esteem and popularity. He also interested himself in agriculture and in social and industrial reform. To him was due the great Exhibition of 1851, which resulted in a balance of $1,000,000, avail

Alberta

Albert

able for the encouragement of science and art. His personal character was high, and he exercised great influence on his children, On Dec. 14, 1861, he succumbed to an attack of fever. Consult Sir T. Martin's Life of the Prince Consort; Letters of Queen Victoria (1907).

Albert, FREDERICK RUDOLF, archduke of Austria (1817-95), son of the Archduke Charles, was born in Vienna. Santa Lucia, Gravellona, MorHe fought at tara, and Novara (all 1848), under Radetzky, and as field marshal commanded the army at Custozza (1866). He did much to reorganize the Austrian army, and was the author of works on military subjects.

Albert, HEINRICH (1604-55 or 56), musical composer, was born in Lobenstein, Vogtland. He studied music under his uncle Schütz in Dresden, and was appointed organist in the cathedral at Königsberg in 1631. His hymns were set to music by himself, and include Gott des Himmels und der Erde; Zum Sterben ich bereitet bin. His secular poems are noted for their grace and lightness. lected in Poetisch-musikalischen They are colLustwäldlein.

(1825-86),

Albert, JOSEPH photographer, began his professional career at Augsburg in 1850, and in 1858 settled at Munich. He produced a large number of copies of famous pictures and drawings by what is called the Albertype Process. See PROCESS WORK.

Alberta, province of Dominion of Canada, includes the former district of Alberta, the western half of Athabasca, and a strip of Assiniboia and Saskatchewan. It is bounded on the west by British Columbia; on the south by the international boundary (49° N. lat.); on the east by Saskatchewan; and on the north by the 60° parallel of north latitude. Length, north

miles; average

to south, 750 width, east

to

west, 347 miles; area, 255,285 square miles.

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the Kicking Horse, (3) the Yellowhead, and (4) the Peace River.

The rivers of Alberta run for the most part from west to east, in conformity with the general slope of the province. In the south the Belly and Bow Rivers, both of which have their sources in the foothills of the Rockies, eventually unite to form the South Saskatchewan River, which in turn is joined farther east by the Red Deer River. Between 52° and 53° N. lat. is the source of the most important river in the province, the North Saskatchewan, which, after receiving the Battle River as its tributary, continues east to join the South Saskatchewan. United under the name of the Saskatchewan River, they flow into Lake Winnipeg, in Manitoba, and eventually into Hudson Bay under the name of the Nelson River.

TOPOGRAPHY.-Topographic conditions divide the province into a southern region of open rolling country except along without trees, foothills of the Rocky Mounthe streams and tains, and a northern region of timbered country, broken here and there by patches of prairie. The Rocky Mountains have a gradual ascent on their eastern side, but the approach from the west is much more abrupt.

Through these mountains the best known of the passes leading from Alberta to British Columbia are (1) the Crow's Nest, (2) VOL. I.-Mar. '13

The province is divided at 53° 28' N. lat. by a height of land, to the north of which the rivers flow toward the north and east. These rivers are the Athabasca, which empties into Lake Athabasca, and the Peace, which is joined near Lake Athabasca by a stream from the lake, and continues its course as the Slave River to Great Slave Lake. Thence to the Arctic Ocean it is known as the Mackenzie River.

The most important lakes in the province are the Athabasca (area 2,842 sq. m., of which 1,041 are in Alberta), Lesser Slave (area, 479 sq. m.), and Claire (area, 405 sq. m.).

The highest peak in Alberta is Mount Columbia (alt. 14,000 ft.). There are 40 other mountain peaks in the province exceeding 10,000 feet in altitude.

CLIMATE AND SOIL. It is rather difficult to give an idea of the climate of Alberta as a whole, on account of the great size of the province and the varying meteorological factors. The mean annual temperature and rainfall of three representative centres are as follows: Calgary, mean annual temperature, 37.4°; rainfall, 16 inches. Edmonton, mean annual temperature, 36.7°; rainfall, 17 inches. Fort Chippewyan, mean annual temperature, 26.9°; rainfall, 13 inches. Calgary, in the south, has an average temperature of 15° in winter; Edmonton, in the central part, has an average winter temperature of 10°; and Fort Chippewyan (lat. 59° N.) has an average winter temperature of 7°. There are not as great differences in the summer temperatures of these three places, since the altitude of the northern part of the

province is much less than that of the south.

The average annual precipitation for the province as a whole is 13.35 inches. The rainfall is greatest from May to Augustthe time when rain is most needed.

For the most part, the soil is a rich alluvial loam, so fertile that manure and artificial fertilizers are unnecessary. The loam overlies a thick bed of clay.

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GEOLOGY. The geological conditions are known only in a general way, as yet; although every year the information gathered by the geological survey parties becomes more localized and detailed. The southern part of Alberta comprises part of the third prairie steppe, with an altitude of 2,000 to 3,000 feet. includes some sterile portions, but as a rule the soil is good. Probably the larger part of this district is occupied by Cretaceous strata, overlaid more or less by sands of Glacial or post-Glacial age. In the western part the Cretaceous strata are succeeded by Cainozoic deposits, consisting of sandy clays with associated beds of coal and lignite. Toward the north the lignite is of a woody or earthy character, but is of better quality in the southwest. The eastern portion of the Rocky Mountain chain enters Alberta in the form of distinct ranges curving toward the northwest. Farther south the ranges are much higher.

FLORA AND FAUNA.-In the south the province is clothed in a mantle of short grass in the summer season. Trees are found in clumps on the hillsides and along the banks of rivers. The northern part is more thickly wooded, and is crossed by the forest belt. The different varieties of trees include the poplar and birch in the south. In the north and in the mountain valleys of the west, the pine, spruce, balsam, and Douglas fir are found.

In the mountainous part of the western portion of Alberta bears and panthers are still found, together with moose and deer. The coyote and occasionally the grey timber wolf are met with. In the mountains themselves wild goats and sheep afford good sport for the hunter. Gophers are numerous in the plains. Other wild animals include the porcupine and wolverine. The extreme northern part of the province is still the home of the hunter and trapper; and, with its wealth of such fur-bearing animals as the mink, marten, otter, and muskrat, affords a

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