conveyed instruction; and of the 232 that have come down to us, 30 are addressed to Charlemagne. In these he congratulates the emperor on victories over the Huns, advises clemency, outlines missionary schemes, expounds astronomy, and touches on ecclesiastical events and heresies of the day. Manners and the state of society are also recorded, together with the surroundings of his earlier manhood, in the most notable of his poems, Carmen de Pontificibus et Sanctis Ecclesia Eboracensis (ed. Raine, Rolls Series, 1878). Alcuin revisited England (790-792) in connection with a renewed treaty between the emperor and Offa, king of Mercia. In 796 he settled at Tours as abbot and head of the great school, and died in 804.

Alcuin's theological writings are not of the first importance. They include allegorical commentaries on Scripture, liturgical works, and treatises on the Adoptian heresy. Nor are any of his 280 poems (mainly occasional pieces) very remarkable. What interest his remains possess lies almost wholly in scholastic and historical work. The former includes treatises on grammar, orthography, rhetoric, and dialectic, and the discourse De Virtutibus et Vitiis-the latter the four lives of St. Waast, St. Martin, St. Riquier (or Richarius), and St. Willibrord. The earliest edition of Alcuin's works is that of Duchesne (1617), the best that of Frobenius (1777), incorporated in Migne's Patrologia Cursus Completus (1851), vols. c. and ci. Additions to these are included in Jaffé's Monumenta Alcuiniana (1873), and Halm's Rhetores Latini Minores (1863). See also Guizot's Civilisation en France,

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vol. ii. lec. 22, an admirable exposition; Lorenz's Alcuin's Leben (Eng. trans. 1837; Monnier's Alcuin et Charlemange (2nd ed. 1863); Werner's Alcuin und sein Jahrhundert (1876); Mullinger's Schools of Charles the Great (1877); and West's Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian Schools (1892).

Alcyonaria, a subdivision of the Anthozoa, including Alcyonium or dead men's fingers, the sea-pen (Pennatula), the red coral of commerce (Corallium), and numerous other beautiful forms. The Alcyonarians are mostly colonial; and the polyps, or single members of the colony, differ from sea anemones and reefcorals in having eight branched tentacles, instead of simple tentacles, in multiples of six.

Alcyone, or HALCYONE, in ancient Greek legend, a daughter of Eolus and Enarete, and wife of Ceyx. When her husband was shipwrecked and drowned, Alcyone in her grief cast herself into the sea. The gods pitied the devoted pair, and changed them into birds, the alcyons or halcyons (kingfishers): it was believed that during the breeding time of these birds the sea was always calm,,,

Aldborough, vil., W. Riding of Yorkshire, England, near the confluence of the Swale and Ure, on Watling Street, 1 m. s. of Boroughbridge stn., on N. E. R. Near it was Isurium, the ancient capital of the Brigantes, and_an important Roman station. Remains of ancient walls, aqueducts, pavements, urns, and coins have been discovered.

Aldebaran = a Tauri, a standard first-magnitude star of a lightred color, showing a spectrum of 'advanced' solar type. The name signifies the 'follower' (of the Pleiades), and an alternative Arabic appellation, Ain-at-Thaur,

Ecliptic

Aldebaran

Equator

Plerades

ERIDAN

✡ 23+ Aldebaran.

means the 'eye of the bull.' The Romans called the star 'Palilicium,' because it set for the last time visibly in evening twilight on April 21, when the Palilia, or

Alden

feast of Pales, was celebrated. Its parallax of 0.11" corresponds to a light-journey of just thirty years, and involves the consequence that Aldebaran shines with a total brilliancy twenty-seven times that to the sun. It is retreating from the earth with a velocity (according to Vogel) of 30 miles a second.

Aldeburgh, bor., Suffolk, England. Birthplace of the poet Crabbe (1754). Pop. (1901) 2,405.

Aldegrever, or ALDEGRAVE, HEINRICH, whose real name was TRIPPENMAKER (1502-60), German painter and engraver. His work was greatly influenced by Dürer, Beham, and Pencz. His few known paintings are in Breslau, Brunswick, and Vienna. Later he gave himself wholly to engraving. He worked entirely with the graver, and his plates are finished with precision and delicacy. There is a good collection of them (1522-55) in the British Museum; he produced over 300 altogether. See The Little Masters of Germany (1880), in the Great Artists Series, by William Bell Scott; Adam von Bartsch, PeintreGraveur : Catalogue raisonné (1802-21).

Aldehyde, a generic term applied to a class of organic compounds which are produced by the partial oxidation of the primary alcohols, and contain a groupCH.O. They are intermediate compounds between the alcohols and acids; by reducing, agents they are converted into alcohols, and by oxidizing agents into acids. The first member of the series is formaldehyde, which is made by the oxidation of methyl alcohol; it is a gas with a pungent smell, and is sold in a 40-per-cent. solution under the name of formalin. It is largely used as a food preservative and as an antiseptic. Common aldehyde (acetic aldehyde), which is made by oxidiz ing ordinary alcohol by means of chromic acid, is a volatile liquid with a peculiar, penetrating odor. An isomeric modification is used in medicine. All the aldehydes are easily oxidized to acids-e.g. on exposure to air, formaldehyde becomes formic acid, and common aldehyde acetic acid. The aldehydes also unite chemically with ammonia, the acid sulphites of the alkalis, and hydrocyanic acid. They also precipitate metallic silver from an ammoniacal solution of silver nitrate, and this property is sometimes utilized in the manufacture of mirrors. See CHLORAL and FORMALDEHYDE.

Alden, BRADFORD R. (180070), American soldier, born at Meadville, Pa. He graduated at West Point in 1831, was afterwards commandant of cadets there (1845-52), and in 1853 was forced to retire from the service by a wound received in a battle,

Alden

in which he commanded the U. S. troops, with the Rogue River Indians, near Jacksonville, Ore. Alden, HENRY MILLS (1836), American author and editor, a direct descendant of John Alden, (q. v.), was born in Mount Tabor, Vt. In 1857 he was graduated at Williams College, and was a student at Andover Theological Seminary (1857-60). Early in his career he was a contributor to the Atlantic Monthly, and in the winter of 1863-4 delivered a course of lectures on The Structure of Paganism before the Lowell Institute, Boston. He then (1863) formed a connection with the publishing house of Harper & Brothers, as managing editor of Harper's Weekly. Since 1869 he has been editor-in-chief of Harper's Magazine. He is a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters. His published work includes the poem The Ancient Lady of Sorrow; God in His World: An Interprelation (1890); an essay on creative evolution. A Study of Death (1895); Magazine Writing and the New Literature (1908). With A. H. Guernsey, he wrote Harper's Pictorial History of the Civil War.

Alden, ISABELLA MACDONALD (PANSY') (1841), American author, was born in Rochester, N. Y., and was educated in Ovid and Auburn, N. Y. She edited the juvenile periodical Pansy from 1873 to 1896. She is the author of a series of books for young people, known as the Pansy Books, in addition to works for older readers, such as The Prince of Peace.

Alden, JAMES (1810-77), American naval officer, was born in Portland, Me. He entered the Navy as a midshipman in 1828; served in the Wilkes expedition to the Antarctic (1838-42), and later as lieutenant in the Mexican War. In the Civil War he was successively in command of the South Carolina, the Richmond, and the Brooklyn. He took part in the capture of New Orleans, and two years later in the engagement at Mobile Bay. In 1863 he was made captain, in 1866 commodore, and in 1871 was raised to the rank of rearadmiral and given command of the European squadron.

Alden, JOHN (1599-1686), one of the Pilgrim Fathers who sailed in the Mayflower. His wooing of Priscilla Mullens is the subject of Longfellow's Courtship of Miles Standish. He lived at Duxbury, Mass., after his marriage; was a magistrate for fifty years, and was active in public affairs.

Alden, WILLIA A LIVINGSTON
Vol. I.-10

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(1837-1908), American author, son of Joseph Alden (q. v.), was born in Williamstown, Mass. He was graduated at Jefferson College, Pa. (1858). He was adImitted to the New York bar in 1860; was in newspaper work in New York City until 1885; then U. S. consul general at Rome (1885-89), and in 1890-93 was on the staff of the Paris Herald. After 1893 he lived in London. His books include Domestic Explosives (1878); Shooting Stars (1879); Moral Pirates (1881); Cruise of the Canoe Club (1883); Among the Freaks (1896);_Drewitt's Dream (1902); Cat Tales.

Alder, a name applied, in America, to various shrubs of dif

Alder Tree: leaf, twig, male (b) and female (a) catkins, and flower. ferent families, having a superficial resemblance. The alders of the genus Alnus belong to the birch family, and are of comparatively small size, though some specimens reach a height of sixty feet. The leaf is somewhat like that of the hazel, roundish in outline, irregularly toothed, and strongly veined. The buds and twigs vary from greenish brown to red brown or violet. The male inflorescences form catkins, and the female are like fir cones. The flowers of A. glutinosa, introduced in the United States, yield green dyes; the twigs, pale brown, and the rough bark, dark red dyes. The wood, capable of withstanding long immersion in water, is used for piles.

The alders are common in swamps and along the edges of streams, especially in Northern America. The green alder, A. alnobetula, is found in Europe and Asia as well as in America; as is also A. incana, the speckled alder The 'black alder,' widely known throughout North America and of great value to the Indians, since its root furnishes a red dye, is a deciduous holly, Ilex verticillata. Certain buck

Alderney

thorns (Rhamnus) are also called dwarf alder and alder buckthorn. See BUCKTHORN. Consult Ward's Trees (1904-5).

Alderman, or ÉALDORMAN (ealdor, 'elder'), originally applied to a Teutonic chief of a privileged family, seems to refer to a primitive constitution, in which the chief authority was held by the oldest member of a tribe. In Egbert's time the title denoted a magistrate appointed by the king and Witan. When the Danish jarl (earl) superseded the ealdorman, in the eleventh century, the latter title declined in dignity. It came to be used for the heads of the guilds, and as the guilds grew in political power, their aldermen became the municipal authorities. The term is now used in Great Britain to denote the municipal magistrate just below the mayor in rank.

In cities of the United States the aldermen, forming the city council, are usually a legislative body with limited judicial powers, as in matters of internal police regulation, laying out and repairing streets, constructing sewers, etc. In some cities, however, they hold separate courts, and have conferred upon them, by civic enactment, some measure of magisterial powers. See LoCAL GOVERNMENT.

Alderman, EDWIN ANDERSON (1861), American educator, was born in Wilmington, N. C. He was graduated at the University of North Carolina (1882). He served as assistant State superintendent of schools (1889-92), when he was appointed professor of education at the University of North Carolina. He has been president of the University_of North Carolina (1896-9), of Tulane University (1899-1904), and of the University of Virginia (since 1904). He has entered into the work of the Southern Education Board, and is widely known in educational circles as an authority on education and a public speaker. He has written Life of William Hooper; School History of North Carolina; Life of J. L. M. Curry.

Alderney (French Aurigny; ancient Riduna), British island, most northerly of the Channel Islands, 10 m. west of Cape La Hague, and separated from Normandy by the Race of Alderney. The treacherous Casket Rocks, to the west, are marked by three lighthouses. There is a harbor of refuge at Braye, on the north side. The island is a dependency of Guernsey, but has a local legislative council. The native French dialect is being largely replaced by English. The cap

Aldershot

ital is St. Anne. Alderney is known for its fine breed of cows. The climate is mild and healthy. Area, 1,962 acres. Pop. 2,100. See CHANNEL ISLANDS.

Aldershot, town, Hampshire, England, 35 m. southwest of London, on the London and Southwestern and the Southeastern and Chatham RRs. The largest permanent military camp in England is situated to the north of the town. The barracks, entirely rebuilt between 1890 and 1904, can house about 30,000 men and 6,000 horses. In the summer a large number of troops from other stations, militia, volunteers, etc., are exercised here. There are rifle ranges, gymnasia, hospitals, and churches. Pop. 35,000.

Aldhelm, St. (c. 640-709), bishop of Sherborne, English scholar and architect. The little church of St. Lawrence at Bradford, Wiltshire, alone remains of his buildings. Some of his writings are preserved in Patres Ecclesiæ Anglica.

Aldine Editions. See MANUTIUS, ALDUS.

Aldobrandini, a celebrated Tuscan family, settled in Florence about the end of the twelfth century. Among its chief members are SILVESTRO ALDOBRANDINI (1499-1558), jurisconsult, banished from Florence for opposing the Medici; IPPOLITO ALDOBRANDINI (1536-1621), son of Silvestro Aldobrandini, became Pope under the title of Clement VIII. (1592-1605); GIOVANNI ALDOBRANDINI, son of Silvestro, became a cardinal (1570); TOмMASO ALDOBRANDINI, another son of Silvestro, author of a Latin translation of Diogenes Laertius; and CINZIO PASSERO ALDOBRANDINI, cardinal, a grandson of Silvestro Aldobrandini.

Aldred (d. 1069), elected (1060) archbishop of York, was the first English bishop (of Worcester) to visit Jerusalem (1058). His archiepiscopate is noteworthy for the Pope's refusal to grant him the pallium; for his reform of the external life of the clergy, and the modelling of his diocese after the splendor of the German Church; and for his loyal yet independent attitude to William the Conqueror, whom he crowned.

Aldrich, NELSON WILMARTH (1841), United States Senator, was born in Foster, R. I. He was president of the Providence common council in 1871-1873, and was a member of the Rhode Island General Assembly in 1875-1876, serving the latter year as speaker of the house of representatives. He was elected to the National House of Representatives of the Forty-Sixth

146

Congress, and was re-elected to the Forty-Seventh Congress. He was elected to the United States Senate in 1881, to succeed Ambrose E. Burnside. He was reelected in 1886, in 1892, in 1898, and in 1905, refusing a renomination in 1910. During his thirty years' service in the Senate he was a member of many important committees, including those on rules, interstate commerce, and finance. From 1899 to 1911 he was chairman of the last-named committee. On the organization of the National Monetary Commission, under the act of May 30, 1908, he was made chairman of that body. He gave his name to the PayneAldrich Tariff Act of 1909.

Aldrich, THOMAS BAILEY (1836-1907), American poet and author, was born in Portsmouth, N. H. He prepared for Harvard, but was prevented by the death of his father from entering that University. In 1852-5 he was employed in a banking house in New York City. Afterward he held editorial positions with the New York Evening Mirror, N. P. Willis' Home Journal, and the Illustrated News; was in charge of Every Saturday from 1865 to 1874, and edited the Atlantic Monthly from 1881 to 1890. He is best known through his poetry, which is most graceful and artistic. Notable examples are The Bells (1855); Ballad of Babie Bell (1856); Pampinea (1861); Cloth of Gold (1874); Friar Jerome's Beautiful Book (1881); Mcrcedes and Later Lyrics (1883); Unguarded Gates (1895). Of his prose, especially well known are Marjorie Daw (1873), which takes high rank among American short stories, and Story of a Bad Boy (1870). His other novels and stories include Prudence Palfrey (1874); Queen of Sheba (1877); Stillwater Tragedy (1880); Two Bites at a Cherry (1893); Sea Turn and Other Matters (1902); Ponka pog Papers (1904); Judith of Bethulia (1905). He also wrote Judith and Holofernes, a play in blank verse, which was presented in Boston and New York City in 1904-5. His Writings, in eight volumes, were published in 1897, and reissued in nine volumes in 1907. Consult Stedman's Poets of America; Richardson's American Literature;Greenslet's Life(1908).

Aldridge, IRA FREDERICK (c. 1810-67), the 'African Roscius.' In 1826 he made his first appearance on the stage, in London, as Othello, and subsequently starred in the provinces. On one occasion he acted Othello to Edmund Kean's Iago. On the

Alegría

Continent, which he visited in 1852, he had much success as an exponent of Shakespearean rôles.

Aldrovandi, ULYSSES (15221605), Italian zoologist, was born in Bologna. He studied law, philosophy, and medicine at Bologna and Padua. In 1549 he was imprisoned at Rome for heresy, but was afterward released. Thereafter he took a medical degree at Bologna in 1553, and held successively the botany and natural history chairs in that university. The first volume of his great work on natural history appeared in 1599. Six others appeared during his lifetime, seven after his death.

Aldus Manutius. See MANUTIUS.

Ale (Danish öl; Anglo-Saxon eale), a term variously applied to malt beverages. Strictly, ale differs from beer by the larger percentage of alcohol (4 to 12 instead of about 2), and by the greater quantity of sugar. See BREWING.

Aleander, Hierony mus (1480-1542), Italian cardinal, was born near Venice. He was a strong opponent of Luther at the Diet of Worms (1521) and a persecutor of those who held the Reformed faith, notably in the Netherlands. He was author of a Lexicon Græco-Latinium(1512).

Aleardi, ALEARDO (1812-78), Italian poet, was born in Verona. He was often imprisoned for revolutionary tendencies. He was professor (1864) of æsthetics in the Accademia delle Belle Arte at Florence; and later a member of the Senate. His Canti are elegant and patriotically inspired, though somewhat sentimental. He also wrote Epistolario.

Aleatory Contract, an agreement the performance of which on one or both sides is made to depend on an uncertain event—a gambling contract. Some agreements of this character are valid and favored by law-as contracts of insurance, bottomry, and respondentia obligations in maritime law. Others, like pure gaming contracts, are now generally held illegal. See GAMBLING.

Alecto, in Greek mythology one of the three Furies, Alecto, Megæra, and Tisiphone, denoting hatred, jealousy, and revenge. See EUMENIDES.

Aledo, city, Illinois, county seat of Mercer co., on the Keithsburg branch of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy R. Ř., 180 m. s.w. of Chicago and 14 miles E. of the Mississippi River. It has manufactures of tile and brick. Pop. (1910) 2,144.

Alegría, pueblo, Philippine Islands, province of Cebú, island of

Aleman

Cebu, 55 m. s.w. of the town of Cebú. Petroleum is found near by. Pop. (1903) 9,579.

Aleman, MATEO (c. 15501610), Spanish novelist, born at Seville. He was the author of the popular story of roguery, La Vida del Picaro Guzman de Alfarache (1599; several English trans.), also of Ortografia Castellana (1608); was for twenty years in the service of the king of Spain; died in Mexico. See Ticknor's Hist. of Spanish Literature.

Alemanni, or ALAMANS, a fusion rather than a confederation of Teutonic tribes who rose into prominence during the later years of the Roman empire, with which they were almost constantly at war during the 3rd, 4th, and 5th

centuries.

From the source of the Rhine to its conflux with the Main and the Moselle the formidable swarms of the Alemanni commanded either side of the river, by the right of ancient possession or recent victory,' says Gibbon, in describing their situation on the eve of the battle of Tolbiac, 24 m. from Cologne, when they suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of the Franks under Clovis, in 496. Thereafter they were allowed by the Emperor Theodoric to settle in what is now S. Bavaria. They were the ancestors of the modern Swabians. From their name comes the French Allemand and Allemagne, applied to the whole of Germany. Almain was also formerly used in England to denote the Germans of the Rhine districts.

Alembert. See D'ALEMBERT. Alembic, an apparatus for distillation used by the alchemists; now superseded by retorts and flasks connected to a condenser.

Alemtejo, the largest prov. of Portugal, drained by the Tagus, the Guadiana, and the Sado; detached mountain ranges in the E., with cork trees, oaks, and chestnuts, towards the w. treeless plains, where sheep are pastured; coast swampy. Cereals are grown, and there are copper and iron mines, and mineral springs, but very little manufacture. Area, 9,423 sq. m. Pop. (1900) 413,531. Chief tn., Evora.

Alençon, cap. of dep. Orne, France, on the Sarthe, 132 m. w. of Paris. Woollen and linen manufactures; the point d'Alençon lace industry is decaying. It was held by the English during the Hundred Years' war from 141549. Pop. (1901) 17,270. Alençon has been the title of a duchy held by various members of the royal family of France, from Charles II. of Valois, who fell in the battle of Crécy, to the present day.

Aleppo. (1.) Vilayet (63,205 sq. m.), N. Syria, Asiatic Turkey, extending from the Mediterranean to the Euphrates. Pop. 995,800.

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(2.) Town (Turk. Haleb-es-Shabba; anc. Beraa), cap. cf above, on the Koeik, 70 m. E. cf the Mediterranean, Alexandretta being its port. An important and historic trade centre, inhabited by Turks, Armenians, Greeks, Jews, Maronites, Syrians, four-fifths being Mohammedans. The Italianized name commemorates the trade connection with Venice, active to the close of the 15th century, when the Cape route to India robbed it of its importance. Conquered by Saracens (636 A.D.); sacked by Tamerlane (1402); captured by Turks (1517); devastated by earthquakes (1170 and 1822); ravaged by plague (1827) and cholera (1832). Chief exports: native manufactures (i.e. silk stuffs, mixed silk and cotton, and cotton stuffs), silk cocoons, wool, liquorice, morocco leather, butter, wheat and other grain, etc. Pop. 129,000, of whom 23,000 are Christians and 8,000 Jews.

Aleshki, formerly DNIEPROVSK, tn., gov. Taurida, Russia, on the Dnieper. Fisheries, fruit culture, active trade. Pop. (1897) 9,119.

Alesia, or ALEXIA (modern ALISE), fort. tn., ancient Gaul, near the source of the Seine, where Cæsar besieged Vercingetorix (De Bel. Gal., bk. vii. c. 68 ff.).

Alesius (Lat. of Hales or Ales), ALEXANDER (1500-65), Scottish Lutheran divine, was born in Edinburgh. He was canon at St. Andrews, chosen for his skill in confuting Luther's opinions to reclaim Patrick Hamilton; but, himself convinced of what he attempted to confute, had to fly to Germany (1532), where he formed a friendship with Melanchthon. Sent to England, he met Cranmer and Thomas Cromwell (Earl of Essex), and lectured at Cambridge. When Cromwell's fall was imminent, Alesius returned to Germany (1540), and, after holding for three years a professorship at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, spent his closing days at Leipzig. See M'Crie's Life of Knox, note 1 (7th ed. 1855); Strype's Memorials of Cranmer (1853).

Alessandria. (1.) Fort. tn. and episc. see, cap. of picy, of same name, Piedmont, Italy, 57 m. S.E. of Turin; built (1168) by the Lombard League as a bulwark against Frederick Barbarossa; the citadel was built in 1728. Now an important railway centre, and manufactures linen, macaroni, etc. Near it took place the battle of Marengo (1800). Pop. (1901) 72,109. (2.) Province, Piedmont, Italy, drained by the Tanaro and other affluents of the Po; chief industries are agriculture and silk. Pop. (1901) 812,022.

Alessi, GALEAZZO (1512-72), Italian architect, born in Perugia. He enjoyed the friendship of Michael Angelo, designed several

Alexander

churches and palaces at Genoa, and the churches of San Paolo, San Vittoria, and the Palazzo Marino at Milan. Buildings after his designs may also be seen in Germany and Belgium.

Aletschhorn, second highest peak (13,721 ft.) in the Bernese Oberland; dominates the great glaciers of Aletsch.

Aleurone Grains, small albuminoid granules, with definite chemical and optical properties, found in the endosperm of ripe seeds.

Aleutian Islands, a curved chain of islands numbering about 150, extending w. from the Alaskan peninsula for a distance of 1,000 m. towards the Commander Is. off the coast of Kamchatka. The islands are bare and rocky, and many of their summits are volcanoes; the largest, Unimak, which is nearest to the mainland, has two active volcanoes. The climate is inclement, but not severe. Fishing and sealing are almost the sole industries. Foxes, bears, dogs, reindeer, caribou, otters, and seals are the chief mammals. The island of Unalaska is the centre of the American whale and seal fisheries; there is a good harbor. The inhabitants, called Aleuts, are Eskimo in origin. They have been converted to the Greek Church, and number (1900) barely 2,000. The greater part of the chain belongs to Alaska.

Aleuts, an Eskimo tribe inhabiting the Aleutian islands, consisting of two main divisions: the Unalaskans on Fox islands and the western part of the Alaskan peninsula, and the Atkans on Andreanof, Near and Rat islands. At the time of their discovery by the Russians they numbered 20,000, but the cruelty of their conquerors and the ravages of smallpox gradually reduced them until they numbered less than a thousand in 1890. They differed from the other Eskimo in many customs and arts and were regarded as of superior intelligence. See Dall, Contributions to N. A. Ethnology, 1877, and Proceedings California Academy of Science, 1873.

Alewife (Clupea mattowocca), a N. American coast, river, and lake fish, 8 to 10 in. long, so called from its rounded, corpulent shape, is somewhat like a shad, but not so good for food. It is taken in great quantities and salted.

Alexander, eight Popes. ALEXANDER I. (109-119) is believed to have died a martyr.-ALEXANDER II., Anselmo de Baggio (1061-73), was born in Milan; bishop of Lucca; papal legate at Milan (1059); elected pope (1061) through the influence of Hildebrand; opposed and defeated Pope Honorius II., who was elected through the influence of the German emperor;

Alexander

was opposed to the divorce of the Emperor Henry IV.; did much, under the inspiration of Peter Damiani and Hildebrand (later Pope Gregory VII.), to reform the Roman Catholic Church.-ALEXANDER III., Orlando Bandinelli (1159-81), one of the greatest popes of the middle ages, was born in Siena; elected pope in 1159; fought successfully against the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, who opposed to him successively three anti-popes, and whom he forced to sign the treaty of Venice (1177), for which he was hailed as defender of the liberty of Italy. He was successful also against Henry II., king of England, whom he constrained to do penance for the murder of Thomas à Becket. In 1179 he summoned the Lateran Council, which conferred on the pope alone the right of canonization, and drew up the laws under which the election of the popes is still governed.-ALEXANDER IV., Rinaldo, Comte de Segni (1254-61), formerly bishop of Ostria and Velletri, was of weak character, and in his struggle against Manfred, natural son of Frederick II., was defeated and compelled to fly to Viterbo, where he died.-ALEXANDER V., Pietro Filargi (140910), was pope only ten months. Bishop of Milan in 1402, cardinal in 1405, he was elected pope in 1409. He died, it is believed, of poison administered by his chancellor, subsequently his successor, under the title John XXIII.-ALEXANDER VI., Rodrigo Borgia (14921503), whose memory is one of the most abused in history; born in 1431 in Jativa, prov. Valencia, Spain. The election of his uncle as Pope Calixtus III. turned his ambition towards the church. At the age of twenty-five he was made a cardinal, and became bishop of Valencia in 1458. The beautiful Vanozza de Cataneis, his mistress, bore him four sons and a daughter, two of whom were the notorious Cæsar and Lucrezia. Elected pope in 1492, he figured conspicuously in the political events of Italy, endeavoring to establish a dynasty for his own family, in the prosecution of which purpose he is accused of having shrunk from no means, not even from assassination and poison. On the other hand, he showed himself an able administrator and politician, a patron of the arts and sciences, and a friend of the people. Cæsar Borgia, who largely inspired Alexander's policy, is Machiavelli's type of the statesman. See Leonetti's Papa Alexandro VI. (3 vols. 1880); Clément's Les Borgia (1882); Pastor's Geschichte der Päpste (3 vols.1895); Gregorovius's Lucrezia Borgia (1875).-ALEXANDER VII., Fabio Chigi (1655-67), was born at Siena in 1599; cardinal and papal nuncio in Germany at the peace

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of Westphalia; was elected pope in 1655. Alexander was a patron of learning, and himself the author of a volume of poems in Latin. He did much for the improvement of Rome, and constructed the beautiful colonnade in the piazza of St. Peter. He had a dispute with Louis XIV. of France, in consequence of which the papal see lost Avignon (1662).-ALEXANDER VIII., Pietro Ottoboni (1689–91), born in Venice (1610), was bishop of Torcello and Brescia; elected pope in 1689. He assisted Venice in her struggle against the Turks, issued the bull Inter multiplices against the four articles of the Gallican Church, and enriched the Vatican library with valuable MSS. from the library of Queen Christina of Sweden.

Alexander, surnamed POLYHISTOR, a native of Cotyaeum, in Lower Phrygia, was brought to Rome as a slave in the time of Sulla; became tutor to the children of Cornelius Lentulus, and was liberated by his master (82 B.C.); subsequently accompanied Croesus on his travels, and died at Laurentum. He was a voluminous compiler of books on historical and geographical subjects, now only surviving in fragments (Müller, Frag. Histor. Græc., vol. iii.; Eng. trans. I. R. Cory, 1876), one of which contains excerpts from otherwise unknown Jewish writers. His works were largely quoted by Pliny, Eusebius, Clement of Alexandria, and others.

Alexander OF APHRODISIAS, so called from his birthplace in Caria, styled the 'Second Aristotle' as being the greatest expositor of the peripatetic school, was the head of the Lyceum, Athens (c. 200 A.D.), and author of numerous commentaries on the philosophy of Aristotle, some of which still exist, as well as of original contributions to philosophy. Of the former, the most important is his commentary on the Metaphysica, ed. by Bonitz (Berlin, 1847); of the latter, De Fato and De Animo.

Alexander OF HALES (d. 1245), English scholastic theologian (Doctor Irrefragabilis), having resigned his benefice in Gloucestershire, went to Paris to study, and was there appointed professor in the schools. Having resigned this position, he entered the Franciscan order (1222). He was strenuous supporter of the papacy, and gave new authority to the teaching of the orders, which now vied with that of the secular professors of the universities. His work, Summa Universa Theologia (first printed 1475, best ed. 1576) is of no permanent value. See Erdmann's Geschichte der neuern Philosophie (Eng. trans.).

a

Alexander, ABRAHAM (1718

Alexander

86), American legislator, born in N. C. Until 1775, he represented Mecklenburg co. in the Colonial Legislature. He took active part in the adoption of the Mecklenburg Declaration of Independ

ence.

Alexander, ARCHIBALD (17721851), American Presbyterian clergyman, was born near Lexington, Va. He was president of Hampden-Sidney Coll. in 1796– 1804, and in 1807-12, pastor of the Pine St. Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia. In 1812 he became a professor in the Theological Seminary at Princeton, N. J. He published A Brief Outline of the Evidences of Christianity (1823), Moral Science was published posthumously (1852).

Alexander, BARTON STONE (1819-78), American soldier and engineer, was born in Ky., and after graduating at West Point entered the engineer corps. For eighteen years he was engaged in engineering and construction work, in the way of defences, etc., and in the Civil War was Sheridan's consulting engineer. He was brevetted brigadier-general in 1865 and two years afterward became a member of the Pacific board of engineers for fortifications.

Alexander, EDWARD PORTER (1835), American soldier and engineer, was born at Washington, Ga., and in 1857 graduated at West Point. He entered the Confederate army in 1861; was chief of ordnance and chief signal officer in the army of No. Virginia (1861-62), and in 1864 was made a brigadier-general. He served in the battles of the Wilderness and Spottsylvania as Gen. Longstreet's chief of artillery. After the war, he was professor of engineering in the Univ. of So. Carolina, retiring from that to devote himself to railroad management and the presidency of several Southern roads. He was engineer arbitrator in charge of the boundary survey between Nicaragua and Costa Rica in 1901.

Alexander, GEORGE (1858), English actor, born at Reading, made his début at Nottingham in 1879 in Sydney Grundy's The Snowball. In 1881 he made his first appearance at the Lyceum in The Two Roses, and in 1884 he accompanied Irving on his American tour. In 1890 he made his first venture as a manager, opening the Avenue Theatre with Dr. Bill, which ran for seven months. In 1891 he transferred his company to the St. James's, where his career has been one series of successes, beginning with Sunlight and Shadow, The Idler, and Lady Windermere's Fan, which, after a long run, was succeeded by R. C. Carton's Liberty Hall. Then came Mr. Pinero's