American Indians

Guatusa. COSTA RICAN: Bribri, Talamanca, Terreba, Guaymi, Cuna, Durasco. DARIEN: Choco, Tule. South America.-CHIBCHAN, PAESEAN, COCONUCAN, CHINCHASUYAN, YUNCAN, QUICHUA-AYMARAN: Inca, Huanca, Chanca, Cana, Cella, Lupaca, Pacasa. CALCHAQUIAN, ANTISUYAN, JIVARAN, ZAPARAN, BETOYAN, PANOAN, TICUNAN, JURIAN, PARUAN, MOJOAN, BARREAN, CURETUAN, CARIPUNAN, CATAUXIAN, CHARRUAN, CARAPUYANAN, CHUNCHOAN, CONIBAN, CARIBAN: Macusi, Akawai, Calina, Galibi, Rucuyenne, Bakairi, Apiaca, Arecuna. ARAWAKAN: Wapitiana, Atorai, Maypre, Parexi, Arawa. WAR

RAUAN, CHIQUITAN, BORORAN, BOTOCUDAN, CARIJAN, HUAMBISAN, HIPURINAN, TUPI-GUARANIAN: Guarayi, Caribuna, Siriono, Mundrucu, Mauhé, Chiriguano, Tupinamba, Omagua, Gcajire, Ovampi, Guaycuru. ARAUCAN, MOCOBI LULEAN, MATACOAN, TOBAN, PUELCHEAN (Pampas), TEHUELCHEAN (Patagonian), YAHGAN. ALACALUFAN. See American Nition, vol. ii. (1904); E.J. Payne's History of the New World called America: The Aborigines (vcl. ii. 1899); Zelia Nuttall's The Fundamental Principles of Old and New World Civilizations (1901); D. G. Brinton's On Various Supposed Relations between the American and Asian Races (1893), and The American Race, a Linguistic Classification of the Native Tribes of North and South America (1891); A. D'Orbigny's L'Homme Améri cain Considéré sous ses Rapports Physiologiques et Moraux, 2 vols. (1839); J. W. Powell's Linguistic Families of America north of Mexico (1891); N. Léon's Familias Linguisticas de Mexico (1902); A. Gallatin's A Synopsis of the Indian Tribes within the United States, etc., 2 vols. (1836); R. G. Latham's Ethnography of North America,' in Proceedings of Philological Society, London (1846); F. V. Hayden's Contributions to the Ethnog raphy, etc., of the Indian Tribes, etc. (1862); A. S. Gatschet's Indian Languages of the Pacific States, etc. (1877); F. Boas's Anthropology of the North American Indians, and Social Organization, etc. (1897); P. Ehrenreich's Anthropologische Studien, etc. (1897); De Nadaillac's L'Amérique Préhistorique (English ed. 1885); H. H. Bancroft's The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America, 5 vols. (1875-76); A. Bastian's Die Culturländer des Alten America, 2 vols. (1878); J. D. Baldwin's Ancient America (1872); G. Catlin's Illustrations of the Manners, Customs, and Conditions of the North American Indians, 2 vols. (1866); A. von Humboldt's Researches concerning the Institu tions and Monuments of the Ancient Inhabitants of America Vol. 1-14

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(English ed. 1814); S. G. Morton's Crania Americana (1839); H. R. Schoolcraft's Ethnological Researches respecting the Red Men of America, 5 vols., and Historical and Statistical Information respecting the History, etc., of the Indian Tribes, etc., 3 vols. (185153); Publications of the Field Columbian Museum, Chicago; and the American Museum of Natural History, New York; Smithsonian Institution, Annual Reports of the Bureau of Ethnology; Handbook of Amer. Indians North of Mexico, 2 vols., vol. 1, (1907).

Americanisms. By this term are understood certain words, locutions, phases of meaning, and methods of spelling peculiar to the United States, and, in a less degree, to Canada. The following expressions may be noted as peculiar to N. America. What the English call timber is known as lumber, biscuits are crackers, rolls are biscuits, confections are candy, running streams are creeks, all climbing plants with tendrils are vines, and the vine itself is distinguished as the grapevine, while corn means only maize cr Indian corn. In the United States the railway terminology presents several differences. Thus, track is used instead of line, the enginedriver is called the engineer, the train is often spoken of as the cars, and the station as the depot (with the hybrid pronunciation dee-po), while railroad is more commonly used than railway. For the antiquated English booking office, ticket office is properly substituted. Other Americanisms are: back of for 'behind'; right away for 'immediately'; and an expansion of the Scotticism 'on the street' into such applications as, 'he lives on Fifth Avenue,' he crossed the Campania,' 'he came on the afternoon train.' The Americans often call their overshoes rubbers and gums. The latter, however, is more local than the former. Mention may further be made of such variations as side-walk instead of pavement,' hack for hackney-carriage,' hackman for 'cabman,' side-whiskers and chinwhiskers for 'whiskers' and 'beard,' bureau for a bedroom chest of drawers, Cologne instead of eau de Cologne, the use of cream-pitcher instead of the British 'cream-jug,' and the restriction of boots to top-boots.

on

It would be a great mistake to assume that Americanisms are necessarily novelties, or aberrations from good English. Many are Americanisms merely in the sense that they are English words which are nowadays peculiar to N. America in their use or in their application. It is quite customary to call railway carriages 'cars'; and the English have borrowed back that very ap

Americus

plication in their dining, sleeping, and tramway car. Other expres sions-e.g. I reckon, I guess, I allow (in the sense of 'I think or suppose'), or to home (meaning "at home"), or the nouns hub and chores-have all been used in England, and some are even yet in use in rural districts. Certain Old English words, indeed, still survive in the United States which seem to have vanished from England. Conversely, some English words are obsolete or obsolescent in the United States-e.g. sledge (supplanted by sleigh), ironmonger, and luggage. As regards the so-called American spelling of such words as favor, honor, plow, center, theater, miter, all these forms have been used in England. Thus, a large number of the divergences between American-Engfish and British-English are due to the fact that the two great English speaking communities have lived separate lives for many generations. See Bartlett's Dictionary of Americanisms (1859); Schele de Vere's Americanisms (1872); R. G. White, in Atlantic Monthly, vols. xli.-xlv.; T. R. Lounsbury, in Internat. Rev., vol. viii.; G. M. Tucker, N. Amer. Rev., vol. cxxxvi.; W. W. Crane, in Putnam's Mag., vol. xvi.; Brander Matthews, in Harper's Mag., 1891; H. Reeves, in Lippincott's Magazine, vol iíi.

Americanists, those who make a special study of American ethnology, archæology, etc. Several international congresses of such students have already been held in Europe. See the Report (in French) of the Copenhagen Congress of 1883.

See

American Literature. UNITED STATES-Literature; also ENGLISH LITERATURE.

American (Native) Party. See KNOW-NOTHINGS.

Asso

American Protective ciation, a league formed at Clinton, Iowa, in 1887, by a lawyer, Mr. Bowers, for restricting immigration into the country, and for checking the privileges of the Roman Catholics.

American River, in California, a tributary of the Sacramento R. into which it falls near the city of Sacramento. It is formed by the union of the North, South, and Middle Forks which rise in the Sierra Nevada and flow through picturesque cañons in a gold-mining region.

Americus, tn. and co. seat of Sumter co., Ga., 53 m. S.E. of Columbus and 70 m. s.s.w. of Macon, at the junction of Central R. R. of Ga., and the Ga. and Ala. R. Rs. It is situated in a cotton and sugar-cane district, and has substantial iron, machinery and chemical industries. It owns and operates its water works. Pop. (1910) 8,063.

Amerigo

Amerigo. See VESPUCCI.

Amerind, and AMERINDIAN or AMERINDIC (adj.), terms invented by members of the Anthropological Society of Washington, D. C., to denote, in scientific treatises, the aboriginal tribes of the American continent and adjacent islands, including the Eskimos.

Amerling, FRIEDRICH (180387), painter, born in Vienna, whose portrait of the Emperor Francis I. (1832) made him the favorite portrait painter of the court and the aristocracy. painted about a thousand portraits; among his historical pictures is Moses in the Desert (1829). See Life by Frankl (1889).

He

Amersfoort, tn., prov. Utrecht, Netherlands, 14 m. by rail N.E. of Utrecht. Theological seminary of the Jansenists. Manufactures of tobacco, cottons, glass, hats, and beer. Pop. (1899) 19,089.

Ames, tn., Story co., Ia., on the Chic. & N. Western R. R., 36 m. N. of Des Moines. The municipality owns and operates its own electric light plant. It is the seat of the State Agricultural Coll. Pop. (1910) 4,223.

Ames, ADELBERT (1835-), American soldier and ex-Gov. of Mississippi, was born at Rockland, Me., and graduated at West Point (1861). In the Civil War he served with distinction, advancing to the rank of maj.-gen. of volunteers, and in the war with Spain he was brig.-gen of volunteers. He was U. S. Senator from Mississippi, in 1870-73, and governor in 1873-76. His administration of that office caused him to be accused of favoritism towards the negro element, and led to the riot at Vicksburg in Dec., 1873. 1876 he was impeached by the Legislature, and resigned when the charges against him were withdrawn.

In

Ames, FISHER (1758-1808), American statesman and orator, was born at Dedham, Mass., and after graduating at Harvard studied law, and in 1781 was admitted to the bar. Early identifying himself with the Federal party, he rose to eminence in its ranks by reason of great practical wisdom and commanding eloquence. In 1788 he was a member of the Mass. Convention that ratified the U.S. Constitution, and in the next year was elected to Congress, where he served four terms, supporting Washington's administration. In 1796 he advocated the passing of Jay's treaty with Great Britain, and some years later, while a member of the Massachusetts Council, he delivered a memorable eulogy on Washington. In 1804, he was elected to the presidency of Harvard, but declined the honor. His published works, edited by his son, Seth Ames, appeared at

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Boston in 1854, with a memoir by J. T. Kirkland.

Ames, JAMES BARR (1846), American educator, born in Boston, Mass., and graduated (1868) at Harvard. He became tutor in French and German at Harvard not long after completing his law course there, and was made associate professor of law in 1873. Four years later he was made full professor, and in 1895 became dean of the law school. Besides his articles in law periodicals, he has published a number of compilations of cases connected with various branches of the law.

Ames, JOSEPH (1816-72), American portrait painter, born at Roxbury, N. H., where, it is said, he showed an aptness for art at the age of twelve. Self-taught, and after some success in his native State, he removed to Boston, and then went to Rome where he not only studied but achieved sufficient prominence to paint the portrait of Pope Pius IX. Returning to the U. S. he lived in Boston, Baltimore, and New York, in which places he was successful in obtaining all the commissions he could undertake. Some of his well-known portraits are those of Rachel, Rufus Choate, Pius IX. (painted in Rome), and Emerson. Death of Webster (1871) is familiar to all from the engraving made from it. Genre pieces include Night, Morning, Miranda, and others. Ames became an Academician in 1870. He painted, on an average, seventy-five portraits in a year.

His

Ames, JOSEPH (1689-1759), English antiquary and bibliographer, born at Yarmouth. Among his chief publications are A Catalogue of English Heads (1748), the first general description of English engraved portraits, and Typographical Antiquities (1749), a history of printing in England, and a register (copied from the books themselves and not from catalogues) of printers and their books from 1471 to 1600. Bigmore and Wyman's Bibliog. of Printing (3 vols. 1880-6).

See

Ames, JOSEPH SWEETMAN (1864-), American physicist, was born in Manchester, Vt., and was educated at Johns Hopkins University, where he afterward became professor of physics and director of the Physical Laboratory. He is an honorary member of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, and of the French Physical Society, and has published: Theory of Physics (1897); Elements of Physics (1900); The Free Expansion of Gases (1898), and Induction of Electric Currents (2 vols. 1900).

Ames, MARY CLEMMER (183984), American writer, was born in Utica, N. Y., and received her

Amesbury

education at an academy in Springfield, Mass. After some work for local papers, she became, and remained for many years, Washington correspondent of the Independent. In 1883 Mrs. Ames was married to Edmund Hudson. At her home in Washington she established a salon much frequented by society and literary people. She prepared biographies of her friends the Cary sisters, published several novels, including Ten Years in Washington (1871), and her Poems were collected in 1882. See the Memorial, by Edmund Hudson (1886).

Ames, OAKES (1804–73), American legislator and manufacturer, born at Easton, Mass. He was connected with the house of Oliver Ames & Sons, famous for its manufactures of picks and shovels during the era of gold discovery in California. During the Civil War, his firm was a large manufacturer for the Government of swords as well as of shovels. He took part in the building (1864-69) of the Union Pacific R. R. and invested heavily in that enterprise. From 1862 to 1873 he represented Massachusetts in Congress, having previously been a member of the executive Council of his native state. A monument to his memory was erected by the Union Pacific R. R. at Sherman, Wyo.

Ames, OLIVER (1831-95), son of Oakes Ames (1804-73), and president of the manufacturing company with which he and his father were both identified, was born at Plymouth, Mass. His honorable character and regard for his father's memory led him, after the latter's death, to make good the outstanding claims, amounting to many millions, against the Union Pacific R. R. From 1882 to 1886 he was lieut.governor, and from 1886 to 1890, governor of Mass.

Ames, WILLIAM (1576-1633), known also as AMESIUS, English Puritan divine, born at Ipswich. Persecuted for nonconformity, he sought refuge in Holland, where he engaged in controversy with Grevinchovius and Episcopius. He was appointed professor of theology at Franeker (1622), and at Rotterdam (1632). His works include Medulla Theologia, a student's handbook; the famous Coronis ad Collationem Hagiensem; De Conscientia, ejus Jure et Casibus; and Bellarminus enervatus. See Life by Nethenus

Amesbury, tn., Essex co, Mass., is situate on the Boston & Maine R. R., 42 m. N.E. of Boston. It is an old historic place and was for a long time the home of the poet Whittier. It has many manufactures, chiefly of carriages, boots and shoes, and

Amesbury

woollen goods. Population in 1910, 9,894. Consult Merrill's History of Amesbury (Haverhill, 1880).

Amesbury, vil., Wiltshire, England, on the Avon, 8 m. N. of Salisbury. About a mile to the w. is a large entrenchment, covcring an area of 39 ac., called Vespasian's Camp, but supposed to be of British origin; and a Ittle farther w. Stonehenge. Elfrida, widow of Edgar, founded here, in 980, a Benedictine nunnery. At Milston, near Amesbury, Joseph Addison was born in 1672. Pop. 1,000.

Amesha Spenta (mod. Amshaspends), the 'immortal holy ones' of the later Avesta, are the principal spirits who assist Ormuzd in his work of creation. They are seven, including Ormuzd. The affinities between the Zoroastrian and Jewish theogonies, manifest in Ormuzd (the Creator) and Ahriman (Satan), are further illustrated by Amesha Spenta, who have been compared to the seven Spirits which are before His throne' (Rev. 1: 4). See ZEND-AVESTA; ZOROASTER.

Amethyst, a variety of quartz distinguished by its purple color. The presence of a small amount of manganese has been regarded as the origin of the peculiar color, which may vary considerably in the same specimen, and is readily destroyed by heating. Amethyst is most often found lining fissures and cavities, or in the interior of agates. Amethyst is valuable as a semi-precious stone of considerable importance, the deep purple colors being the most highly prized for gem cutting. Fine specimens come from Oberstein (in the Nahe valley, Prussian Rhineland), Hungary, Brazil, and Ceylon. Amethyst of fine color and quality is also found in Oxford co., Maine, Delaware and Chester cos., Penn., Havwood co., N. Carolina. and at Thunder Bay, Lake Superior. See G. F. Kunz, Gems and Precious Stones of North America.

Amfortas, or ANFORTAS, king of the Holy Grail, in Wolfram von Eschenbach's Parzival and Wagner's opera of Parsifal.

Amga, a river in Siberia, in the Yakutsk district, and a tributary of the Aldan, which falls into the Lena. It has its source in the Yablonoi Mountains.

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co., Mass., on the Boston and Maine and Vermont Central R. Rs., about 100 m. w. of Boston. It is the seat of Amherst College, and of the State Agricultural College. The town dates from the beginning of the 18th century, and was incorporated in 1776. One of its prominent industries is the manufacture of straw hats. Pop. (1910) 5.112. See Carpenter and Morehouse, The History of the Town of Amherst (Amherst, 1896). (2.) Seaport tn., cap. of Cumberland co., Nova Scotia, a port of entry on Cumberland Basin, on Halifax and Moncton Line, Intercolonial R. R., 9 m. from Lockville, N. B., and 138 m. from Halifax. A

Walker Building,

shipbuilding centre, with large lumber trade and many industries, factories, tanneries, iron foundries and mills. Large manufacture of shoes. Pop. est. (1905) 5,000.

Amherst, JEFFREY (1717-97), created BARON AMHERST (1776), a British soldier, born at Riverhead, Kent. He entered the British army in 1731, served in the war of the Austrian Succession, and in Germany as colonel, in the early part of the Seven Years' War. In 1758 he was made a major-general and was placed, by Pitt, in command of the expedition, which resulted in the capture of Louisburg (July 27, 1758). He directed the final operations of the French and Indian War in America, and at Montreal in Sept. 1760 forced Gov. Vandreuil to surrender Canada and all its dependencies to the British Crown. He was soon afterward made gover nor-general of the British Prov inces in North America, but though an able officer, he was in

Amherst College

competent, owing to his contempt of the Indians and his lack of faith in the colonial methods of fighting them, to deal effectively with the conspiracy of Pontiac, and in 1763 returned to Great Britain. He was nominally governor-in-chief of Virginia (1763-8), but never went to that colony; for many years was acting commander-inchief of the British army; was commander-in-chief (1793-5), and in 1796 became a field marshal.

Amherst, WILLIAM PITT (17731857), created EARL AMHERST OF ARAKAN (1826), British diplomatist and statesman, nephew of the above, was sent in 1816 as envoy to the emperor of China; but he

Amherst College.

refused to perform the traditional 'Kotow' or act of kneeling to the emperor, so that he failed in the object of his mission. This did not prevent his advancement, and after a brilliant diplomatic career he became governor-general of India and carried the first Burmese war to a successful conclusion. In 1826 he was made an earl, and in 1828 he returned to England. See Ellis's Journal of the Proceedings of the late Embassy to China (1817); Taylor's Manual of the History of India (1870).

Amhers burg, tn., Essex co., Ontario, Can., on the Detroit R., six m. above its junction with Lake Erie. It is on the Canada division (trom Buffalo to Detroit) of the Mich. Central R. R., 16 m. from the county seat of Sandwich. Formerly the town was known as Malden, and once had a fortress and garrison. A daily line of steamers connects it in summer with Pelee Island, Windsor and Detroit. Pop. (1901) 2,225.

Amherst College, Amherst,