Ablution

Germanic parent-speech, and is connected there with the influence of the accent (compare Greek πατήρ, εὐπάπωρ). The dif ferentiation at first was phonetic only; afterwards it was utilized in the expression of differences of meaning, as in strong, or 'irregu lar' verbs of the Germanic languages, where the ablaut serves to mark difference of tense. The regularity of sequence has been obliterated in many verbs by phonetic changes. See Hirt's Der indogermanische Ablaut (Strassburg, 1900), Skeat's English Etymology (1889), Brugmann's Grundriss, vol. i. (1886).

Ablution, a rite symbolizing the purification of the soul by the cleansing of the body.

Abnaki, confederation of Algonquin tribes, formerly occupying present state of Maine and S. New Brunswick. Among these were Passamaquoddies, Penob

the

scots, and Norridgewocks. They now number about 1,900 persons located in New Brunswick, Que bec, and Maine.

Abner (Father is Ner'), a Hebrew warrior, son of Ner (1 Sam. 14:51), cousin of Saul, and captain of the army. He proclaimed Ish-bosheth king (2 Sam. 2:8), abandoned him for David (2 Sam. 3:12), and was killed by Joab (2 Sam. 3:27).

Abney, SIR WILLIAM DE WIVE LESLIE (1844), English chemist and physicist, was born at Derby, and educated at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich; became in structor in chemistry to the Royal Engineers, Chatham; adviser to the Board of Education (Science Dept.) in 1903; was a member of Council for Education to the War Office. His researches in light, including stellar photometry, in photography, and in spectroscopy are of great value. His writings include Instruction in Photog raphy (1870); Treatise on Photog raphy (1875); Color Vision, Color Measurement and Mixture (1893); and many papers in the Philosoph ical Trans. and the Proc. Royal Society. In 1900 Captain Abney was made a K.C.B. in recognition of his scientific attainments. Among his works other fields are Thebes and its Five Great Temples (1876), and The Pi oneers of the Alps, in collaboration with C. D. Cunningham (1888).

Abo, port, Finland, Russia, 50 m. from the open sea, 124 m. from Helsingfors. Coaling station; exports of timber and iron. Here was signed the peace of Abo between Sweden and Russia in 1743. Pop. (1897) 34,964.

Abo-Björneborg, gov., Finland. Area, 9,332 sq. m. Pop. 395,000.

Abolitionists, a term applied, broadly, in the United States to

23

those who, before the Civil War, advocated the abolition of slavery; but more generally applied only to those who were especially radical in their views, who advocated immediate abolition, without compensation to the slave owners, and who, disavowing the Federal Constitution as a pro-slavery document, endeavored to attain their object by moral agitation rather than by political action. Even during the colonial period, there were men such as Samuel Sewall of Massachusetts and, later, Samuel Hopkins of Rhode Island, who publicly protested against slavery; and in the North where the economic value of the slave was not sufficient greatly to neutralize the effect of humanitarian appeals, an anti-slavery, and essentially though not always avowedly an abolition sentiment gradually developed, becoming particularly manifest after the Revolutionary War, though as early as 1774 an anti-slavery society with Benjamin Franklin as president had been organized in Philadelphia. In this early movement the Quakers were especially conspicuous. Even in parts of the South, however, there were many opponents of slavery, both Washington and Jefferson, for instance, in Virginia, declaring vigorously against it. Gradually the Northern States freed their slaves, leaving the institution confined to the South. Though Benjamin Lundy and others early contended for abolition generally for gradual rather than for immediate abolition-before 1831, what is known in American history distinctively as the abolition movement began in that year with the establishment (Jan. 1) by William Lloyd Garrison of an intensely anti-slavery journal, the Liberator, devoted to agitation for the immediate and unconditional emancipation of all slaves in the United States. This movement, in essence a vigorous outburst of humanitarianism, rapidly gained in strength, being fostered partly, at least, by persecution, and continued always under the leadership of Garrison -until slavery no longer existed in the United States. It found expression not only through the press and from the platformvarious anti-slavery journals cooperating with the Liberator and innumerable anti-slavery lectures and addresses being deliveredbut also through effective antislavery organizations such as the New England Anti-Slavery Society (formed in Jan. 1832) and especially the American Antislavery Society (formed in Dec. 1833, and not dissolved until 1870), numerous branches of which were established. These societies and the movement generally, gained the sympathy even

Abolitionists

to

of many conservatives, when Congress in effect denied Abolitionists the right of petition and when Pres. Jackson denied to them the right to use the United States mails in furthering their propaganda. The radical Abolitionists, to whom the term is often restricted, followed Garrison in rejecting and heaping scorn upon the Federal Constitution, which, quoting Isaiah (28:18), Garrison called a covenant with death and an agreement with hell' in refusing to take any part in politics; in adopting the shibboleth 'no union with slaveholders'; and therefore in favoring a disruption, though a peaceable disruption, of the Union. Radicalism such as this, accentuated by the religious, social, and economic radicalism of many of the Abolitionists, met with opposition from a large element, previously associated with them, which was more conservative by conviction and temperament; and the representatives of this element-the so-called 'Constitutional Abolitionists' under the leadership of James G. Birney and other equally high-minded men, believing that their end could best be attained through the use of the governmental machinery provided by the Constitution, organized in 1840 the Liberty Party, of which James G. Birney was the candidate for the presidency in 1840 and 1844. In 1848, the Liberty Party was virtually absorbed by the Free-Soil Party, which in turn was one of the political elements which were fused into the Republican Party in 1854-6. This party included large numbers of earnest anti-slavery men, represented by such political leaders as Lincoln and Seward, Charles Sumner, Henry Wilson, and John P. Hale, who had long hated slavery and who greatly desired its abolition, but who were never technically Abolitionists, who recognized that each State had a right under the Constitution to decide for itself whether it should or should not have slavery, who preferred to make use of practicable means for the attainment of practicable ends, and who therefore strove, not directly for the abolition so much as for the restriction of slavery-its exclusion from the Territories and from the District of Columbia and the rigid suppression of the illegal slave trade.

The radical abolitionists were a stern, unyielding, uncompromising, and high-minded group of idealists, who devoted themselves, with remarkable fervor and singleness of purpose, to their cause, but who, having focussed their thoughts on the iniquity of slavery, were unable to see that a Southerner was essentially a product of

Abomey

re

his peculiar history and environment, and that a man could, in other respects, be an estimable and high-minded gentleman and citizen, and yet be a slave-holder. In language they were rancorous, vituperative, and unrestrained, so that by many even of those who opposed slavery they were garded as fanatics and incendiaries. In the South they were naturally regarded with intense and bitter hatred. The practical effects of their agitation were the arousing of the conscience of a large part of the North, the antagonizing of numerous conservatives, and the solidifying of the South, which became more and more sensitive to any outside interference. See William Lloyd Garrison (4 vols. 1885-9), by his sons; Wilson's Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America (1872); Wm. Birney's Life and Times of James G. Birney (1890); Samuel J. May's Some Recollections of Our Anti-slavery Conflict (1869); W. H. Smith's The Political History of Slavery (2 vols. 1903); and Hume's, The Abolitionists (1905).

Abomey, tn., French Sudan, 65 m. N. of Whydah; former capital of Dahomey, now capital of the division of Abomey; occupied by the French, Nov. 17, 1892. Trade in ivory, palm oil, and gold. Pop. 20,000.

Aborigines. This word was first used of the original inhabitants of Italy; it was afterwards extended to the inhabitants of other countries when first known; now it generally means the natives found in a country by European colonists, as, for example, the North American Indians. The word is also used of plants and animals, to denote the flora and fauna indigenous to a place. The abolition of slavery in the British dominions (1833) led to the formation of the Aborigines Protection Society, and various acts were passed for the protection of the natives of the Pacific islands, and for regulating the importation of them into the Australasian colonies, including Fiji. The General Act of the Brussels Conference, signed July 2, 1890 (Hertslet's Treaties, vol. xix. p. 278), sets out what the powers declare to be the most effective means of counteracting the slave trade in the interior of Africa, and contains in ch. vi. restrictive measures concerning the drink traffic, intended to protect the native population from the abuse of it. For Australian aborigines, see AUSTRALIA.

Abortion denotes the expulsion of a foetus incapable of life, and medically the term is applied to those cases occurring before the sixth month of pregnancy. Later, the term used is miscarriage.

The causes of abortion may de

24

pend upon the health of the fœtus, or on that of the mother. Illness of the mother during pregnancy may, either by lowering the general health, or by a more direct action, induce abortion or miscarriage. Certain drugs mental or physical shock, overexertion, or a muscular strain or a fall, may have the same effect, the danger of abortion being much greater with some constitutions and temperaments than with others.

Preventive treatment means in the average case merely the living of a sane life, not inactive, but quiet, regular, and healthy, with special care to avoid exhaustion, excitement, and crowded rooms, and the pressure of tight clothes. Should abortion be threatened (suggested by bleeding and pain), the patient must at once go to bed, and send for medical assistance. Cold compresses, changed before they grow warm, will help to check the hæmorrhage temporarily; but for this purpose it is of the greatest importance to lie quiet. Should abortion take place, and skilled assistance be unobtainable, absolute quiet, complete rest, and cleanliness are the most important points. Unless a woman treat herself as carefully after an abortion or a miscarriage as she would after a confinement, she runs not only grave immediate danger, but also risks chronic invalidism later. Intentional abortion, except when judged necessary by medical men in consultation, and performed by them with the care necessary for any surgical operation, is not only always criminal, but often proves suicidal. In law, procuring, or attempting to procure, abortion, whether by the woman herself or by another, is a felony in most of the several States of the United States, unless the act be necessary to preserve the mother's life. The mere solicitation or advice given to a pregnant woman that she attempt to produce a miscarriage is a misdemeanor, if_the_woman follows the advice. In England procuring or attempting to procure an abortion is a felony, and in Scotland a crime, punishable by penal servitude for life, or by imprisonment. If the woman dies, or if the child is born alive but dies because of premature birth or the means used, it is murder.

In England, to supply any poison or instrument, knowing that it is intended to be used to procure abortion, is a misdemeanor punishable by penal servitude not exceeding five years, or by imprisonment.

Aboukir, or ABUKIR (anc. Kanobos), vil., Aboukir Bay, Egypt, 13 m. N.E. of Alexandria. Aboukir Bay, 16 m. wide, was the scene of the battle of the

Abraham

Nile (Aug. 1, 1798) in which Nelson defeated the French. At Aboukir, Bonaparte, with 6,000 men, defeated an army of 18,000 Turks (July 25, 1799); and there Sir Ralph Abercromby landed in face of the French, whom he defeated (March 21, 1801), and compelled them to quit Egypt. In the vicinity are many ancient remains. The Lake of Aboukir, a salt marsh of 31,000 ac., is in process of reclamation.

Abousambul. See IPSAMBUL.

About, EDMOND FRANÇOIS VALENTIN (1828-85), French novelist and dramatist, born at Dieuze, Lorraine; devoted himself to fiction and journalism, and produced La Grèce contemporaine (1854), the first of a long list of works. In the Franco-German war he accompanied Macmahon's army as special correspondent of the Soir; he was editor of the XIXe siècle from 1875, which he founded with Sarcey; and was elected a member of the Academy (1884), but died (in Paris) before his reception. His fame rests principally upon his novels, such as Roman d'un Brave Homme (1880; Lond. 1880); Le Nez d'un Notaire (1862; Lond. 1882); Le Roi des Montagnes (1856); Madelon (1863); L'Homme à l'Oreille Cassée (1862); Trente et Quarante (1865), all of which have been translated into English.

Abra, rugged, volcanic prov., Luzon, Philippine Is. (area, 1,484 sq. m.; pop. 49,000); watered by river of same name, large and navigable for boats, which rises in Caballeros Cordillera, and enters the sea on w. coast. Tobacco is the chief crop. Rice, corn, cotton, and sugar-cane also are grown, as well as pineapples, oranges, lemons, strawberries, etc. There are veins of copper, indications of coal, iron, etc. The resources are undeveloped, but the inhabitants are now well disposed, and inclined to welcome instruction in better methods. Industrial schools have been established, with both American and native teachers.

Abracadabra, a cabalistic word used by Basilidian Gnostics of the second century and later as a spell to secure the assistance of good spirits against evil; supposed, when written in the form of a triangle and worn round the neck for nine days, to act as a charm against fevers, etc. First occurs in a poem by Sammonicus, second century. See ABRAXAS.

Abraham. The account of Abraham given in Gen. 11:31; 25:18 is less a connected biography than a series of tableaux. As Abram, the son of Terah, he comes before us a noble figure, great in moral and religious character, as also in material possessions. A native of Ur of the

Abraham

Chaldees (in Mesopotamia, or, less likely, Uru, now Mugheir, in Babylonia), married to his halfsister Sarai, he migrates to Haran in Upper Mesopotamia; thence, in obedience to a divine command, to Canaan, which land is thereupon promised to his seed (Gen. 12:1-6). Thenceforward he lives the life of a nomad chief, wandering mainly in the districts around Shechem, Beth-el, and Hebron. While sojourning in Egypt, he imperils Sarai's honor by misrepresenting her as only his sister (cf. the similar action in Gerar, Gen. 20:1-11); but he shows true self-denial in giving the choice of pasture land to his nephew Lot, and true courage in his successful attack upon the victorious Chedorlaomer, while the tenderness of his nature is evinced in his unwillingness to expel Hagar and Ishmael from his tent at Sarai's instigation, and in his pathetic intercession on behalf of Sodom. The promises grow ever in splendor; Jehovah makes a covenant with him, ordaining the rite of circumcision, and changing his name from Abram to Abraham (and Sarai's to Sarah), as the credentials thereof; heavenly messengers are commissioned to visit him, and his prayers have power on high (Gen. 17, 18). At length Isaac is born, and the crowning expression of Abraham's faith is given in his willingness to obey God even to the extent of offering up the son of promise as a sacrifice (Gen. 21, 22). After Sarah's death Abraham marries Keturah, and has six sons by her; and at last, at the age of 175, he is laid to rest beside Sarah in the cave of Machpelah (Gen. 25: 1-10). No quite satisfactory explanation has been given of the names Abram, Abraham, or Sarai, Sarah. The patriarch plays a great rôle in later Judaism as also in the New Testament; many remarkable legends have gathered round his name; and to the Arabs he is, as Ibrahim, the first and greatest Moslem. On the more debatable or extra-biblical points, the mentaries (e.g. Dillmann's Genesis, trans. by Stevenson, 1897) and the recent Bible dictionaries_(e.g. Hastings's; and Cheyne's Ency. Bib.) may be consulted with advantage. For Assyrian relations, see Tomkins's Studies on the Times of Abraham, and Sayce's Patriarchal Palestine (1895); for Abraham's place in Biblical history and theology, see Schultz's O. T. Theology (trans.by Paterson, 1892), and Kittel's History of the Hebrews, i. (trans. by Taylor, 1895). There is a late apocryphal book, The Testament of Abraham (published in Texts and Studies (1892) and by Bonwetsch in Studien zur Geschichte der Theologie, Leipzig, 1897).

com

26

Abraham, HEIGHTS OF, or PLAINS OF, S.W. of Quebec, along the St. Lawrence, the scene of the battle between Wolfe and Montcalm (Sept. 13, 1759), which added Canada to the British empire. Wolfe ascended the heights at Anse du Foulon (Wolfe's Cove), 1 m. above Quebec.

Abraham-a-Santa-Clarafamily name, ULRICH MEGerle— (1644-1709, a great pulpit orator of the Roman Catholic Church; born near Messkirch in Baden; joined the Barefooted Augustinians (1662); court preacher (1677); from 1682-9 worked at Graz, but spent the rest of his life at Vienna. His style was fearless, humorous, and racy. The sermon, Up, up, ye Christians! (1683), against the Turkish menace, was used by Schiller in Wallenstein's Lager. His most typical book is Judas der Ertz-Schelm (1686-95). See also Sämmtliche Werke (21 vols. 1835-50); also Sexto's Abrahama-Santa-Clara (1896).

Abrahamites, a Syrian sect in the 9th century who denied the divinity of Christ. Also applied to a deistic sect in Bohemia in the 18th century, who professed to be followers of Huss; they were expelled from Bohemia in 1783.

Abraham-men, a cant term, current 1573-1824, signifying halfnaked vagabonds. One of the wards in Bedlam was named after Abraham, in allusion probably to Luke 16:22, and was devoted to mendicant lunatics, who wore a special badge, and were permitted to wander about the country begging. Hence the term 'Abram cove,' and the phrase 'to sham Abraham'; though the latter is also used in reference to forging bank notes, in allusion to Abraham Newland (d. 1807), cashier of the Bank of England. See King Lear, ii. 3, and Dekker's Bellman of London (1608; ed. Grosart, 1885).

Abraham's Bosom, a term applied by the Jews to the abode of the righteous after death. As a metaphor, it is borrowed from the custom of reclining at meals, the head of each guest leaning towards the breast of his lefthand neighbor; to be next the host was to lie in his bosom-i.e. to occupy the place of distinction. By some it is supposed that Abraham's bosom-otherwise the Garden of Eden and Paradisedenoted one of the compartments of the intermediate state in which all must sojourn for a time before entering the abode of final weal or woe. It is certain that the Jews of our Lord's time believed in an intermediate state with two localities; but it is questionable whether the term Abraham's bosom' was then used of the intermediate resting-place of the righteous, and not rather of the

Abrogation

higher paradise or heaven itself. The latter seems the more probable, from the fact that in the only scriptural passage in which the phrase occurs (Luke 16:22 f.) its correlative Hades is plainly the place of torment. See Salmond's Chris. Doctrine of Immortality (1895).

Abrantes, tn., prov. Estremadura, Portugal, at the head of navigation on the r. bk. of the Tagus, 88 m. N.E. of Lisbon. Strongly fortified. Trade in grain, olive oil, wine, and fruit. Pop. about 8,000.

Abrasives, minerals used to put an edge on cutting instruments, or to polish metallic or other surfaces. They include burr-stones, millstones, corundum, emery, garnet, grindstones, pulp - stone, infusorial earth, tripoli, rouge, oilstones and whetstones, quartz, carborundum, and crushed steel. See Mineral Re-. sources of the United States (Annual), U. S. Geological Survey, for statistics of occurrence and production.

Abravanel, or ABARBANEL, a family of Spanish Jews tracing its descent from the royal house of David. (1.) ISAAC BEN JEHUDA (1437-1508), minister of state to King Alfonso v. of Portugal, and from 1483 to 1492 chancellor to Ferdinand the Catholic, king of Castile; subsequently lived at Naples, in Corfu, and at Venice. He was distinguished for his high intellectual and moral qualities; author of a number of philosophical and exegetical treatises, his chef-d'œuvre being probably his exposition of the Messianic belief among the Jews in his Spring of Salvation, Salvation of his Anointed, and Herald of Salvation. See Carmoly's Biographie d'Isaac Abravanel (1857). (2.) LEO HEBRÆUS, physician at the court of Gonsalvo de Cordova, and friend of Pico de Mirandola. His principal work is the Dialoghi di Amore (written 1502; published 1535). In philosophy he was an eclectic, trying to combine Plato, Aristotle, and the Arabic philosophy into a harmonious system. See Zimmels's Leo Hebræus (1886). Abraxas, a mystic word Eastern origin, thought by the Basilidian Gnostics to signify the 365 spiritual orders of the divine manifestation, because in Greek notation the equivalents of its letters yield that number. This sect, and later theosophists, cut the word on gems (abraxas stones), together with monstrous figures-e.g. a man with a cock's head and serpentine limbs. For account of Gnostic gems see Kopp's Palæographia Critica, vols. 3, 4 (1827-29) and King's Gnostics and their Remains (2d ed., 1887).

of

Abrogation. The nullification

Abrolhos Islands

of a rule of law through the adoption by the courts or enactment by the legislature of a rule inconsistent therewith. The abrogation of the previous law is thus the indirect, though it may be the intended, effect of the law subsequently adopted. An express nullification of a statute by a subsequent enactment is denominated a 'repeal' of the former, and the abrogation by later decisions of a rule established by the courts is a 'reversal' thereof.

Abrolhos Islands, E. of Brazil (lat. 17° 58' s.; long. 38° 42′ w.) belong to the state of Bahia. They are low rocks. On Santa Barbara Is. is a lighthouse.

Abrus Precatorius (Gr. habros, 'elegant'), wild liquorice, a leguminous plant having seeds like small peas, of a scarlet color, with a black patch on one side. These are used in India as weights (rati), and are strung together to form rosaries, whence their name 'prayer-beads.' They are said to have given origin to the carat, the jeweller's unit of weight.

2

Abrus precatorius and Fruit.

Abruzzi, PRINCE LUIGI AMADEO, DUKE OF THE (1873), Italian arctic explorer and geographer, third son of Amadeo, Duke of Aosta, and cousin of the king of Italy, was born in Madrid.

He

ascended Mount St. Elias, Alaska, in 1897, when he determined its altitude and geological origin. From his Arctic expedition (18991900) a sledge party, commanded by Capt. Umberto Cagni, reached the highest recorded latitude, 86° 33' N. He established the N. limits of Franz-Josef Land, and proved the geographical non-existence of Petermann's Land. 1906 Abruzzi made the ascent of Ruwenzori in Africa, and in 1909 ascended Mount Godwin-Austen to a height of 24,600 feet. See Filippi's Ascent of Mt. St. Elias (1900; Eng. trans.); On the Polar

In

27

Star' in the Arctic Sea (1903; Eng. trans.).

Abruzzi and Molise, territorial div. (compartimento) of Central Italy, occupies the half of the peninsula on the Adriatic side, to the E. of the province of Rome. It is traversed by the two main ranges of the Central Apennines, between which lie the high valley of the Aterno (2,300 ft.) and the plateau basin of the now drained L. Fucino (2,165 ft.). On the Adriatic side the eastern range goes down abruptly to the sea, and its flanks are seamed with numerous short, swift streams. In the higher parts the climate is severe. Forestry and pasturage are the chief occupations: cereals and wine are produced in the fertile lower valleys; saffron in Aquila. Asphalt is found in Chieti. Area, 6,565 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 1,442,365. The territory embraces the provinces of Aquila, Chieti, Teramo, and Campobasso -the last-named corresponding to Molise, and the first three to the Abruzzi.

Absalom, King David's third son, born at Hebron. Because of his personal charms, Absalom became a universal favorite, and his ambition made him a danger to the realm. Though forgiven by his father for the murder of his half-brother Amnon, he stirred up sedition, and raised a formidable insurgent force. His army was routed by the royal troops in the wood of Ephraim, and Absalom, fleeing upon a mule, was caught by his hair in a tree, and killed by Joab, to the great sorrow of the king. See 2 Sam. 13-18.

Absalom and Achitophel, Dryden's greatest political satire, published (first part, 1681) on introduction of the Exclusion Bill. It is an allegory of the history of King David, thinly veiling the real theme-the attempt by the court party, led by Shaftesbury (Achitophel), to secure the succession of the Duke of Monmouth (Absalom), Charles's illegitimate son. For a full criticism, see Ward's English Poets (1881-2).

Absalon, or AXEL, archbishop of Lund (1128-1201), born in Sjælland, Denmark. From 1157 onwards he energetically assisted King Valdemar to reconstruct the Danish state; took an active part in the struggle with the heathen Wends; and became successively bishop of Roeshilde and archbishop of Lund (1178). After Valdemar's death (1182) Absalon's influence became still stronger, and he was of essential service to young King Canute in his successful struggle with Bogislav of Pomerania (1184). Absalon was of the best type of the mediæval warrior-priests, one of the greatest of Danish statesmen, yet pious and conscientious. A scholar

Absinthe

himself, he supplied his clerk, Saxo Grammaticus, with the materials for his great history. See Estrup's Absalon som Helt, Statsmand og Biskop (1826).

Abscess, a collection of pus covered by the skin or other tissue, resulting from inflammation. It is often recognized by the feeling of 'fluctuation,' as of a sac containing liquid, when the fingers are pressed over it. Treatment requires rest, poulticing, and attention to general health, until the abscess is sufficiently liquefied to be cut open; the abscess is then emptied, the wound is dressed antiseptically until healed, and, if deep, is drained by a tube.

Absciss Layer, a layer of cork formed in autumn between the base of the leaf and the stem in many deciduous trees. It divides across the middle, and causes the fall of the leaf, half of the cork remaining to cover the leaf-scar.

Absconding. The act of going beyond the jurisdiction of the courts in order to avoid service of legal process. The term is usually confined to the act of a debtor in hiding or leaving the country or state for the purpose of hindering, delaying or defrauding his creditors. Absconding is an act of bankruptcy and gives statutory remedies against the estate left by the debtor and in many jurisdictions subjects him to arrest if found in the jurisdiction.

Absinthe, a liquor made by distillation, containing alcohol and a number of essential oils, the chief among the latter being the oil of wormwood, to which the deleterious properties of the liquid are in great measure due. The green color of absinthe should be due to chlorophyll, which is usually introduced by the maceration of the liquor with spinach or parsley; but various artificial coloring matters -e.g. indigo, turmeric, or copper sulphate-are frequently employed. The average composition of absinthe is as follows: Alcohol, 50.00; oil of wormwood, 0.33; other essential oils, 2.52; sugar, 1.5; chlorophyll, traces; water, 45.65. The essential oil-derived from the wormwood-combined with the spirit, produces rapid intoxication. Absinthe is principally made and consumed in France and Switzerland (especially in Neuchâtel), and in some parts of the United States. It was first introduced as a febrifuge in the Algerian army (1844), but is now prohibited in the French service. Absinthism, caused by excess in absinthe, is common in France. The symp toms are distinct from those of alcoholic poisoning. Absinthe seems to act directly through the higher nerve - centres, nervous symptoms being the most prominent throughout, appearing first