Antarctic Ocean

Land, embarking a party, but made no discoveries of importance beyond more detailed studies of ice formation and shore lines. The equipment of the expedition was meagre, and its resources inadequate for work of the first importance.

The attainment of the South Pole by Amundsen and Scott within thirty days of each other, and within three years of the discovery of the North Pole by Admiral Peary, marks the first quarter of the twentieth centuryas the most memorable in Polar exploration. See ANTARCTIC OCEAN.

Consult Antarctic Manual, with Bibliography (ed. by Murray, 1901); Borchgrevink's First on the Antarctic Continent (1901); Bernacchi's To the South Polar Regions (1901); Lecointe's Au Pays des Manchots (Belgica Expedition, 1904); Résultats du Voyage de la S. Y. Belgica (30 vols., in course of publication); Die Deutsche Süd polarExpedition (1903); Nordenskjöld and Anderson's Antarctica (1905); Mill's Siege of the South Pole (1905); Armitage's Two Years in the Antarctic (1905); Scott's Voyage of the Discovery (1906); Official Reports by the French Ministry of Public Instruction of Charcot's Français (1904-5) and Pourquois Pas (1908-10) Expeditions; The Heart of the Antarctic, by Sir E. H. Shackleton and others (1909); 'Captain Scott's Story' (London Weekly Times, April 5 and 12, 1912).

Antarctic Ocean. This great water division of the globe is in many respects the antithesis of the Arctic Ocean. The Antarctic consists of a central mass of land, covered with a thick and presumably unbroken ice cap. To this vast accumulation of ice are due the huge table-topped icebergs projecting 150 to 200 feet above the surface of the sea, and descending 1,200 to 1,500 feet below it. As the edge of the great ice barrier is approached, the ocean in many parts very perceptibly decreases in depth. For instance, east of Victoria Land, and off the adjacent Adélie Land, the depth ranges from 100 to 800 fathoms; east of the South Shetland Island, it is 100 to 500 fathoms deep; and west of Graham Land there is a 'contiLental' shelf of 200 to 300 fathoms depth. But in the higher latitudes, or between 60° and 40° s. lat., the depth is greatly increased. From Patagonia east to Kerguelen Island the depth generally exceeds 2,000 fathoms -in some places even 3,000 fathoms. Indeed, the depth on the 60th parallel nearly all round the Vol. I.-Mar. '12

265

Pole exceeds 2,000 fathoms. South America, or rather Tierra del Fuego, is apparently linked to the Antarctic lands at Graham Land by a curving submarine ridge, which separates the Southern Atlantic from the Southern Pacific, and is only about 110 fathoms below the surface.

On the whole, the water of the Antarctic Ocean would appear to be colder than the water of the Arctic. On the surface, and down to about 50 fathoms, it is comparatively warm, though absolutely cold (29° to 30° F.). Thence the temperature gradually increases down to about 165 fathoms, where it is 35°; and this temperature is maintained down to 800 or 825 fathoms. From this level to the bottom it again sinks to about 31°. These are the results of observations made by the German deep-sea expedition in the Valdivia in 1898-9. According to the observations of the Challenger, some twenty-five years earlier, the temperature of the surface water was between 29° and 38° (according to latitude), and of the bottom 32° to 35°; and wedged in between these two layers was a colder stratum of water, with a temperature of only 28° to 32.5°. Ross, again, in 1841-3, reported a surface temperature of 27.3° to 33.6°, with an average of 29.8°— this being in the summer.

Meteorologically, the area about the South Pole is one of low pressure, having a mean of less than 29 inches; and this vast permanent anticyclone appears to have a much wider extension in winter than in summer. The climatic conditions depend largely upon the wind. When it blows from the south it is clear and cold; but winds from the opposite directions bring fogs and cloud and a rise of temperature. There is continuous daylight from November to January.

In regions higher than 40° s. lat., the Antarctic plankton, or organic life of the surface, is characterized by an abundance of diatoms. Pelagic animals, such as molluscs, amphipods, copepods, and other marine organisms, are plentiful down to 1,000 fathoms, and are not at all scarce at 2,700 fathoms. Sir John Murray asserts there are species common to both North and South Polar regions which are absent in the depths of the intervening oceans.

The southern right whale (Balæna australis) extends at least as far south as 50° s. lat., but it is in no sense an ice whale. There are two whales peculiar .to southern seas-the pygmy

Antarctic Ocean

whale (Neobalana marginata) and a bottlenose (Hyperoödon planifrons); but these hardly extend into the Antarctic. There are possibly several Antarctic rorquals. Four true seals are peculiar to the AntarcticWeddell's seal (Leptonychotes Weddelli), the sea-leopard (Ogmorhinus leptonyx), Ross's seal (Ommatophoca Rossi), and the crab-eating seal (Lobodon carcinophagus). All are widely distributed throughout the area. No fur-seal is truly Antarctic; but it is stated that the elephantseal occurs off the coast of Victoria Land.

The most characteristic birds are the penguins, especially the emperor and the Adélie; the petrels, especially the ice, giant, and Antarctic petrels; and the Antarctic skua, which Lieutenant Prestrud's party of Amundsen's Expedition (1910-1911) saw in King Edward VII. Land. Meantime, the invertebrates are little known; but recent expeditions have taken rich hauls. Land plants are naturally very few; a grass (Aira caespitosa) and a few mosses and lichens have been thus far described.

Much information has been collected by recent expeditions regarding the geology of the Antarctic regions. In Victoria Land sandstone has been found containing fossil plants (dicotyledons), apparently of Miocene age. In the region of Louis Philippe Land, almost at the opposite side of the circle, a marine volcanic tuff containing (drifted) land plants of Tertiary age occurs. In the same region there are deposits containing Jurassic land plants, and fossiliferous marine beds belonging to the Jurassic and Cretaceous systems. The South Orkneys consist of Primary sedimentary deposits, chiefly greywackes and conglomerates, in which a fossil graptolite has been found. Kaiser Wilhelm II. Land is apparently composed of Archæan rocks, especially granite, gneiss, and quartzite. Here, as elsewhere within the area, there also occur volcanic lavas of recent date.

See also the article on ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION, and Bibliography cited there.

Antares, a Scorpii, a red star of 1.5 magnitude. It gives a banded spectrum of Secchi's third type, and forms, with a seventh-magnitude green satellite, a beautiful chromatic combination. Admitting the reality of Finlay's parallax of 0.02", this star must possess about 540 times the sun's lightpower, and appears to

us in

Ant-bear, either of two large, furry termite-eating animals: (1) the great ant-eater of S. America; or (2) the aard-vark of Africa.

Ant-Birds. Tropical birds of various kinds which feed partly upon ants or termites (white "ants'), but the degree to which they seek this fare seems to have been exaggerated or mistaken. All belong to a large family of small South-American insect-eating birds named Formicariidæ with reference to this characteristic. They are for the most part of subdued colors and voice, and spend their time in shyly hunting for various small insects on or near the ground in wooded regions; but when a marching column of leaf-cutters or other migratory ants is abroad they will sometimes gather and prey upon it in great numbers. Resemblances in form, colors or manners, to other well-known birds, have led Europeans there to give the names ant-thrush,'. ant-shrike' and 'ant-wren' to particular species. Similarly the small, brilliant ground-searching pittas of the tropical East are there called 'ant-birds,' though they rarely if ever take this food.

a

Ant-eater, a term applied to several unrelated mammals of similar habits and diet. The true ant-eaters are members of the order Edentata, and are confined to S.-America. The largest, the great ant-eater or tamanoir (Myrmecophaga jubata), reaches length of 4 ft., exclusive of the large, bushy tail, and has the face prolonged into a long, tubular snout. Teeth are entirely absent, and the long, flexible tongue is covered with sticky saliva by which the ants are caught when the tongue is thrust into their unroofed masses. The fore limbs are furnished with powerful claws, which are used in tearing open the nests of termites, or 'white ants,' on which the animals chiefly feed. It is terrestrial and lives in dense

267

forests, but does not burrow; and its long claws and great strength make it a formidable antagonist. Related forms are the arboreal tamandua and the little ant-eater (Cycloturus), the latter subsisting mainly on the honey-comb and grubs of wasps. The scaly anteater or pangolins (q.v.) are members of the same order; as is also the African aard-vark, ant-bear,› or Cape ant-eater. The term spiny ant-eater is applied to Echidna, and banded ant-eater to Myrmecobius fasciatus, a curious little, Australian marsupial mammal, which is chestnut-red, with white and dark stripes on its back, and somewhat resembles the English squirrel in appearance.

Great S. American Ant-eater.

Antecedent, in grammar, the subject to which a succeeding pronoun refers; in logic, the premise from which a 'consequent' proposition is inferred; in mathematics, the first element in a ratio-e.g. 2:43:6.

Antelope, one of a group of agile, swift-footed ruminants (Bovidae), which cannot be definitely regarded as sheep, goats, or oxen. They are characterized by having slender, usually cylindrical horns, usually marked with ring-like elevations, and as a rule confined to the males. Some of these (e.g. the Alpine chamois) are structurally near the goats, and others (e.g. the African genus Alcelaphus) are far removed from them. Antelopes are typically plain animals, and are therefore specially at home in Africa, but their migration thither from the north is recent, geologically speaking. A few only of the more conspicuous antelopes can be noticed here, and further information will be found elsewhere under their several names. In the genus Alcelaphus, including the African hartebeest, blesbok, bontebok, and others, the back slopes, owing to the fact that the height at the withers is much greater than at the rump, the head is long and narrow, and the horns are lyrate and bent back at the tips. The African gnu is a near ally of these forms. In size these antelopes should be contrasted with the duikerboks, of which the smallest, is not larger than a rabbit, while the hartebeest may stand nearly 5 ft. at the withers. The saiga is one of the few antelopes which occur in Europe and Asia. In India there are relatively few ante

Anthelmintics

lopes; but the somewhat cowlike nylghau deserves mention. Re-. lated is the African genus Tragelaphus, including the beautiful harnessed antelopes, with long, spirally-twisted horns. Another African antelope, the gemsbok, is remarkable for its long, straight horns, present in both sexes. The eland (Oreas canna), the largest of all antelopes, is said to be rapidly disappearing. In structure and in habitat the European chamois connects the antelopes with the goats. No true antelope belongs to America, our so-called 'antelope' being a prong horn (q. v.). For S. African antelopes see works by Millais and Bryden and the writings of many sportsmen; for Asiatic, Baker, Wild Beasts and their Ways (1892); Blandford, Fauna of British India: Mammals (1888); Śclater and Thomas, The Book of the Antelopes (1896).

Ante meridiem. See A.M.

Antennæ, or feelers, are sense organs, generally tactile, borne on the head in crustaceans, myriapods, and insects, where they are homologous with the other appendages, such as the jaws. See INSECTS; CRUSTACEA.

Antenor, the Trojan counsellor who urged the Trojans to restore Helen to Menelaus.

Ante Nuptial Agreement. An agreement made by a man or woman, with each other or with third parties, in contemplation of their marriage with one another. The term is most frequently applied to an agreement for the settlement of the property of one or both the parties for their joint benefit after marriage and for that of their issue, or to an agreement between them respecting the terms on which the wife is to share in the husband's estate in the event of his death. The importance of an ante-nuptial as compared with a post-nuptial agreement lies in the fact that a contemplated marriage is a good consideration for a promise made with reference thereto, whereas a past marriage is not, and in the further fact that at common law the marriage, by merging the wife's legal personality in that of the husband, destroys the woman's ability to enter into a binding contract with her husband.

Antequera (anc. Antiquaria) tn., prov. Malaga, Spain, 27 m from Malaga. Pop. (1900) 31,609.

Anthelia, colored circles, usually three or four in number, which surround the shadow of the observer's head when projected on a fog; seen in the Arctic regions and on mountains: also known as 'Ulloa's circle,' or as a 'glory.' Anthelmintics, remedies which kill or expel intestinal worms. Vermicides kill the worms, vermifuges expel them. For tape

Anthem

worms, oil of male-fern is chiefly used; santonin is useful for round worms; and an injection of quassia, or salt and water, is used for thread-worms.

Anthem, a form of musical composition set to sacred words and used in the service of the church. Compositions of this class were first written to be sung in alternate parts; but great diversity of treatment has been admitted, and the modern anthem may be written for solo, soli, or chorus, or for some or all of these parts in combination. In the English Church the anthem takes the place of the motet in the Roman and Lutheran Churches. See ANTIPHONY.

Anther, the male organ in flowering plants; contains the pollen, and is situated at the free end of the stamen. See FLOWER.

Antheridium, the male reproductive organ in the fern and moss groups, and in some species of Algæ. In every case motile sexual cells, called spermatozoids, are developed within the antheridia.

Antherozoid, the free-swimming male element or cell in the sexual reproduction of the lower plants. See SPERMATOZOA.

Anthology (Gr. 'flower-gathering'), a series of select extracts, generally poems, chosen from the works of various authors, and complete in themselves. Much the most important is the Greek anthology. The earliest compilation of any note was the Stephanos ('garland') of Melcager of Gadara, put together early in the 1st century B.C. Other similar collections were edited by Philippus of Thessalonica during the reign of Nero, by Strato of Sardis (the Paidike Mousa) under Hadrian, and by Agathias_of Constantinople (c. 550 A.D.). The earliest and completest of the extant versions is that brought together by the grammarian Constantinus Cephalas (probably c. 950 A.D.); this work was altered, abridged, and rearranged by Maximus Planudes, a rhetorician of the early part of the 14th century. This inferior Planudean anthology remained for three hundred years the only one known to Europe. It was first printed in Florence by Janus Lascaris (1494), and frequently reprinted e.g. by Wild and Altheer (Utrecht, 1795-1822), and_by Stadtmüller (1894, etc.). The anthology of Cephalas was rediscovered by Salmasius (1606) in the library of the Counts Palatine at Heidelberg, whence it is now generally known as the Palatinate Anthology. Salmasius copied the epigrams hitherto unknown, which circulated in Ms. as the Anthologia Inedita; but the first complete edition was pub

268

lished in Brunck's Analecta Veterum Poetarum Græcorum (Stras. 1772-6), an improved recension being Jacobs's Anthologia Græca (Leip., 13 vols., 1794-1814; and 4 vols., 1813-17). The handiest working edition is Dübner's, in Didot's Bibliothèque Grecque (Par. 1864-72). The range of the Greek anthology is from the 6th century B.C. to the 10th century A.D. It was translated into Latin by Hugo Grotius (1630; pub. 1795-1822), into German by Herder (1785-97), into English by Wrangham, Sterling, Goldwin Smith, Merivale, Macgregor, Sir R. Garnett, etc. The English reader may consult Dr. Wellesley, Anthologia Polyglotta (1849); A. J. Symond's Studies of the Greek Poets (1873); A. J. Butler's Amaranth and Asphodel (1881); Mackail's Select Epigrams (1890); and the versions given in Bohn's Library (1854), and in the Canterbury Poets Series. Latin anthologies, in imitation of the Greek, were published by Scaliger (1573), Pitthous (1590), Peter Burmann (1759; ed. Meyer, 1835), and Riese and Bücheler (1894-7). The substance of the numerous Oriental anthologies is accessible to Western readers in Von HammerPurgstall's Persian Lit. (1818), in nis W. Turkish Poetry (1836), and in Garcin de Tassy's Hist. de la Lit. Hindoue et Hindoustani (1839-47). The Chinese ShiKing (Book of Songs), attributed to Confucius, and said to be the oldest anthology in the world, may be consulted in Rückert's German translation (1833). The standard English anthology is F. T. Palgrave's Golden Treasury (1861); other well-known collections are Trench's Household Book of English Poetry (1868), R. W. Emerson's Parnassus (1875), QuillerCouch's Oxford Book of Verse (1900), and Stedman's Victorian Anthology (1895), and American Anthology (1900). The Psalms also are virtually an anthology.

Antholysis is the formation of double flowers, in which the stamens and carpels become leaf-like; all the organs are usually multiplied. This peculiar condition throws light on the homology of the members of the flower with the foliage leaves.

Anthon, CHARLES (1797-1867), American classicist and writer, was born, in New York City and educated at Columbia College, from which he graduated in 1815. He was admitted to the bar, but never practised. In 1820 he was appointed adjunct professor of ancient languages at Columbia, and fifteen years later was made head of

the classical department. While holding these posts he issued an extensive series of annotated texts of the classics which for many years were exceedingly

Anthony

popular. Besides editing an edition of Lemprière's Classical Dictionary (1822), he published in 1841 a Classical Dictionary and a Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1843), both of which have been in extensive use in this country and in Great Britain.

Anthony, city and co. seat of Harper co., Kan., 70 m. s.w. of Wichita, on the Kansas. So. Western, St. Louis, and San Francisco, and other R. Rs. It is situated in a good agricultural and stock-raising district, and has several manufactories. Pop. (1910) 2,669.

Anthony, HENRY POWEN (1815-84), American publicist, journalist, and legislator, was born at Coventry, R. I., and educated at Brown University. He edited the Providence (R. I.) Journal (1838-c. 1858), and was twice (1849-50) governor of R. I. From 1859 until his death he was a Republican U. S. Senator, and in 1863, 1871, and 1884 was president pro tem. of that body.

Anthony, JOHN GOULD (180477), American conchologist, was born at Providence, R. I.

In

1863, at the instance of Louis Agassiz, he became director of the conchological department of the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology, and two years later accompanied Prof. Agassiz on his productive expedition to Brazil. He published A New Trilobite (1831), and descriptions of new species of shells (1839 and 1866).

Anthony, ST. See ANTONY, ST.

Anthony, SUSAN BROWNELL (1820-1906), American reformer and prominent advocate of woman suffrage, was born at Adams, Mass., the daughter of a Quaker. She was educated chiefly at the Friends' School at West Philadelphia, and early in her career took à zealous interest in temperance and anti-slavery movements. In 1868-71 she published The Revolution, a journal devoted to the woman's rights cause; she also organized, in concert with Mrs. Stanton, the National Woman Suffrage Association, and with that lady and Mrs. Gage published a volume, History of Woman Suffrage (1881-1902). She took a very prominent part politically in movements tending to the enfranchisement of women, and this she did by lecturing frequently in this country and in England and by appeals to congressional committees. In 1872 she was arrested, tried, and fined for voting illegally under the Fourteenth Amendment. For the story of her remarkable career, see Harper's Life and Work of Susan B. Anthony (2 vols., 1898).

Anthony, WILLIAM ARNOLD (1835-1908), American physicist, born at Coventry, R. I., and in 1860 graduated at the Sheffield

Anthony's Nose

Scientific School, Yale. He subsequently taught physics at Antioch College (O.), the Agricultural College of Iowa, Cornell Univ., and Cooper Institute (N. Y. C.). Besides publishing, with C. F. Brackett, a Manual of Physics (1898), Prof. Anthony devoted much interest to electrical science and contributed a section to E. A. Thompson's work on Röntgen Rays and the Phenomena of the Anode and Cathode (1896).

Anthony's Nose, a promontory on the E. bank of the Hudson R., N. Y., between Peekskill and West Point, 47 m. from N. Y. city. Anthophyllite, a fibrous mineral of the amphibole group. It is orthorhombic and bears the same relation to the monoclinic amphiboles that enstatite and hypersthene do to the monoclinic pyroxenes.

Anthozoa or ACTINOZOA, an order of the Colenterata, including such polyp-like forms as the corals (except millepores), and

sea-anemones.

Anthracene (CeH4C2H2 CH4)2 an aromatic hydrocarbon formed when certain carbon compounds are exposed to a high temperature. It is produced in large quantities in the manufacture of coal gas, being found in coal tar, and is used in the production of alizarin and allied coloring matters. It is a white crystalline solid with blue fluorescence.

Anthracite, or STONE COAL, a kind of coal distinguished by its great hardness, its high proportion of carbon, and the great heat given out in burning. While ordinary coal has a dull lustre, anthracite is brilliant and even metallic in appearance, often with a curious iridescence like that of a peacock's feather. It has a hollow, rounded, conchoidal fracture, while coal usually breaks into blocks with flat surfaces. It is so hard as not to soil the fingers; its sp. gr. is from 1.3 to 1.8. Anthracite contains comparatively little volatile matter, the mineralization of woody matters having been carried to a further degree than in bituminous coal; but it shows occasional traces of the cellular structure of wood. The percentage of carbon ranges from 85 to 94; in burning, there is little flame, and no caking; combustion is comparatively slow; hence it is of value for fusing refractory metals and for steamraising. The greatest anthracite fields at present worked are those of Pennsylvania, where the deposits cover nearly 500 sq. m.; but it is also mined in Wales, Silesia, Westphalia, France, Russia, W. Canada, and the Rocky Mountains. Richthofen has described large anthracite deposits round Tse-chow, in the Chinese provinces of Shan-si,

269

and states that the coal-bearing area is greater than that of Pennsylvania. See P. Roberts, Anthracite Coal Industry (1902).

Anthracosia and Anthracomya, genera of fossil bivalve mollusca supposed to be of freshwater habit, and not unlike the present fresh-water mussels; are common in certain beds of the Coal Measures.

Anthraquinone, CH,(CO)2C8 H1, a yellow crystalline solid, melting at 277° c., and obtained by oxidizing anthracene with chromic acid mixture. It is used in the manufacture of alizarin and its derivatives.

Anthrax (Gr. 'carbuncle'), formerly applied both to carbuncle and to malignant pustule,' but now used as a synonym for the latter only. Anthrax is a disease which attacks men and several of the lower animals (e.g. horse, cow, sheep, and goat), and is transmitted by inoculation, or by inhaling or swallowing; the former known as external anthrax or malignant pustule, the latter as internal anthrax-'woolsorters' disease'-from wool, including camel-hair and goat-hair, hides and skins, horse-hair, and bristles. The incubation period does not exceed three days. Practical preventive measures suggested are: the employment of persons with the requisite experience; exclusion of workers with open sores; treatment of suspected materials by washing or disinfecting; special ventilating precautions, and cleanliness of rooms, person, and clothing. The sufferers are generally those whose work is connected with the handling of hides, wool, or carcasses. Malignant pustule usually starts at some abrasion or scratch, as a pimple, around which the tissues become brawny and hard. The pimple becomes a vesicle; a black, gangrenous patch ensues, around which a circle of fresh vesicles is formed, while outside them the redness and hardness of the tissues spread. Later, the neighboring glands become infected, tender, and enlarged. The temperature generally rises, exhaustion follows, and death comes through syncope ог through oedema, at times affecting the throat, when, as is often the case, the pustule develops in the face or neck. Treatment of the pustule is by the thermo-cautery, or by local injections of iodine or of carbolic acid; or by complete excision of the pustule and the application of strong antiseptics to the wound. Anti-anthrax serum is another injection used, and Sobernheim (Berlin. klin. Woch., 1899: No. 13) advises the mixing of this with attenuated cultures of the bacillus anthracis, a rodlike body, straight or beni,

Anthropology

with cross markings, and sometimes showing spores, which is often found in the lymphatics of the patient. This bacillus was first observed by Davaine in 1850.

Internal anthrax, or woolsorters' disease, is a form in which the bacillus obtains entrance through the alimentary or respiratory tract. There is no external pustule, but there are swellings and ulcers, with hæmorrhage, in the intestines, bronchi, or lungs, and the bacteria may spread through the lymphatic circulation, and cause secondary ulcers in any organ, with typhoid symptoms. It is sometimes very difficult to diagnose the internal form of anthrax, but the occupation of the patient often suggests the probable condition. In such cases local treatment is impossible; but antianthrax serum is recommended, and every step should be taken to support the patient's strength. Anthrax in the lower animals is often called splenic fever.

Anthropological Societies. These exist in nearly all parts of the civilized world. In the United States the best known is the American Anthropological Society, with a membership embracing all the leading anthropologists in the country. The most important local societies are the Anthropological Society of Washington, D. C., the Anthropological Section of the New York Academy of Sciences and the American Ethnological Society of New York. The first to be founded was the Société d'Anthropologie de Paris, in 1859. Then followed the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland in 1865; the Moscow Anthropological Society in 1866; the Italian, at Florence, in 1868; the Berlin in 1869; the Vienna in 1870. Similar societies exist at Washington, Sydney, Bombay, St. Petersburg, Rome, Brussels, and Stockholm.

Anthropology, or the SCIENCE OF MAN, is more widely related to other studies than is any other subject; it is, therefore, impossible to delimit its boundaries very rigidly. Thus, it merges into zoology and physiology on the one hand, and, on the other, into history and theology. The description of the human body and of its functions does not fall within the scope of anthropology, except in so far as it is descriptive of a definite group of men, or is comparative between different races or peoples; and although the comparison of man with the higher apes is often made by anthropologists, this inquiry belongs strictly to comparative anatomy, physiology, and psychology. In connection with this article, see especially ETHNOLOGY and MAN.

The detailed study of the anatomy, physiology, and psychology