Arctic Ocean

Commander Peary, April 6, 1909. Previously, the nearest approaches which had been made were by Peary himself (87° 6' in 1906); by Dr. Nansen and Lieutenant Johansen (86° 14′ in 1895), and by Captain Cagni, of the Stella Polare (86° 34' in 1900). Apparently there is no land in the higher latitudes, and the Pole is in a vast sea of comparatively smooth ice. At its periphery the Arctic is bordered by a tolerably broad continental shelf, above which the water is exceptionally shallow; at least this is the case along the N. of Europe and the N. of Siberia as far as 135° E. long. West of this point the depth of water on the continental shelf is generally between 50 and 80 fathoms; but in the Kara Sea it sinks to 400 fathoms or more, and between Novaya Zemlya and Franz Josef Land there exists a depression of 100 to 150 fathoms deep. There is also another depression between Norway and Bear I., measuring 240 fathoms. But east of 135° E. long. the depth, even on the line of continuation of the continental shelf, suddenly plunges down to 2,000 fathoms. Five miles from the Pole Peary found no bottom with 1,500 fathoms of line. Along the route where the Fram (Nansen's vessel) drifted in 1893-6 the soundings exceeded 1,800 fathoms, and often 2,000 fathoms, from 79° N. lat. and 138° E. long. to near Spitzbergen. West of Spitzbergen the greatest ascertained depth is 1,720 fathoms (Nathorst expedition, 1898). And, so far, the absolutely greatest depth sounded in the Arctic is 2,100 fathoms, in 81° N. and 130° E.; or 2,650 fathoms, if we accept the sounding of the Sofia made in 1868. The area of the Arctic Ocean is estimated at 5,908,000 sq. m., and it is computed to receive the drainage of 8,614,000 sq. m. In the Polar basin the temperature of the surface water is generally at 29.2°-about the freezing-point of salt water. At about 110 fathoms it suddenly increases to 33°-33.5°. But the temperature (and with it the salinity) ranges highest between 120 and 350 fathoms-viz. 35° to 39.9°. Underneath this warm stratumwhich has been charged to the diffusion of the Gulf Streamthere comes a second cold layer the middle of which lies at about 500 fathoms, where Nansen found the temperature to be 31.9°. But from 1,000 fathoms to the bottom there is a pretty uniform temperature of 33.1° to 33.4°. Dur

ing the thirty hours which Peary spent around the Pole the temperature of the air ranged between -12° and -33°, though -59° was recorded beyond the 84th

348

parallel, with which it is interesting to compare the lowest land temperature of -90° F. at Verkhoyansk in Siberia. Normally, the ice-pack seldom exceeds from 7 to 13 ft. in thickness. It is neither unchangeably fixed nor unalterably solid, but, in the summer at any rate, is in almost unceasing motion. Not only does it drift bodily from the middle of the N. coast of Siberia in a northerly curve westward toward the N.E. shoulder of Greenland, but it is locally subject to continuous disturbance, being thrust up into hummocks by pressure from below, and alternately split asunder and again driven together. In summer, outside the edge of the permanent ice-pack, there is in many places a permanent layer of fresh water, sometimes 5 to 6 ft. in depth, which has resulted from the melting of the ice-pack itself, and from the outflow of the great Siberian rivers. In addition to the movements just mentioned, there is a never-ceasing circulation between the waters of the Arctic and the waters of the Atlantic, in that the warm surface water of the latter flows up between Greenland and Norway, and then, becoming chilled on contact with the cold Arctic water and ice, sinks toward the bottom, and finally flows back southward as a cold current, chiefly along the E. side of Greenland and down Davis Strait, carrying with it the icebergs which are so often a menace to vessels navigating the Atlantic. But this circulation, thus generally outlined, is locally much complicated by the Gulf Stream, by the winds, and by the submarine ridges and trough-like depressions which intervene between the continental shelf and the islands, and among the islands themselves. Animal life is fairly abundant in the Arctic regions (see ARCTIC LIFE), though in the highest latitudes no form of life is reported either by Peary or Nansen. The sun remains permanently above the horizon about 160 days and for a corresponding period remains permanently befow it-this is, of course, in high latitudes. See Robert E. Peary's The North Pole (in preparation, 1910); Dr. Nansen's 'Farthest North (2 vols. 1897), and Scientific Results of the Nansen Expedition (1900); the Duke of the Abruzzi's On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea' (Eng. trans. by Le Queux, 1903); Kinloch's Hist. of the Kara Sea Trade Route to Siberia (1898).

Arctinus OF MILETUS (fl. c. 750 B.C.), one of the 'cyclic' poets, who completed the cycle of epic stories begun by Homer. Only fragments of his poems survive, but he is said to have written two epics

-Arden

the Ethiopis, continuing the story of the Iliad, and the Sack of Troy. His fragments are collected in Kinkel's Epicorum Græcorum Fragmenta (1878), also in Monro's Oxford Text of Homer (1896)..

Arcturus, a Boötis, the brightest star in the northern hemisphere, its photometric magnitude being 0.07. It is first mentioned by Hesiod, who selected the acronychal rising of Arcturus (the latest visible after sunset) as the signal for the pruning of the vines; and his fixing of the occurrence at sixty days after the winter solstice gives 730 B.C. as the approximate date of composition of the Works and Days. Arcturus had a stormy reputation. The spectrum of the star is of the solar type, and its rays have a reddish tinge. The minuteness of its parallax indicates for it a light-power 1,100 or 1,200 times greater than that of the sun; and, taken in conjunction with its proper motion of 2.3" annually, shows it to have an actual velocity in space of at least 260 m. a second. Arcturus was one of four stars which Halley in 1718 observed had unmistakably shifted their positions since Ptolemy's epoch. The heat received from it was measured with a sensitive radiometer by Professor Nichols at the Yerkes Observatory in 1898.

Arcus Senilis, a gray curved band partially or wholly occupying the rim of the cornea of the eye, occurring generally in the aged. Arcus senilis is usually a symptom of general arterial degeneration.

Ardashir, founder of the Sassanian dynasty of Persia, wrested the crown from Artabanus, the last of the Arsacid (Parthian) line, in a battle fought by appointment on the plain of Hormizjan (227 or 224). He had first made himself master of Istakhr (Persepolis), and built his power upon the influence of the ancient Zoroastrian faith. His career of conquest was checked by the Romans in 233. Ardashir died in 241.

Ardebil, ARDABIL, or ARDABEEL, tn., prov. Azerbaijan, Persia, 110 m. E. of Tabriz; trading centre on the route to port of Astara on the Caspian Sea. The shrine of Sheikh Sufi is annually visited by numerous pilgrims. Pop. 10,000 to 15,000.

Ardèche, mountainous and picturesque dep. (area, 2,136 sq. m.), S. France, on r. bk. of Rhone, its E. limit; is watered mainly by the swift-flowing Ardèche and its tributaries. Though mainly agricultural, there is mining and some silk-spinning. Cap. Privas. Pop. (1901) 353,564.

Arden, FOREST OF, a former

Arden

forest (patches of woodland rather than continuous forest) in Warwickshire, north of the Avon (see Shakespeare's As You Like It, Act ii., in which, though the characters are French, the allusions to Robin Hood and the descriptions of scenery clearly indicate the English forest). Previous to the division of England into counties, the name was applied to a more extended tract reaching north to the Trent and west to the Severn.

Arden, EDWIN HUNTER PENDLETON (1864), American actor, manager, and writer of plays, was born in St. Louis, Mo. He first appeared on the stage in 1882 with Thomas W. Keene's company in Chicago. His best known plays, some of which have been written in collaboration with other playwrights, are Zorah, The Eagle's Nest, Barred Out, Raglan's Way, and Told in the Hills.

Ardennes, wooded mountain system, Southeast Belgium, between the Meuse and Moselle; geologically connected with the hills which fence in the Rhine between Bonn and Bingen. The general elevation is about 1,800 feet. It consists mainly of barren moors, with densely wooded (oaks and beeches) slopes and fertile river valleys. Large stalactite caves exist at Han and other places, and the region yields coal, iron, lead, antimony, copper, manganese, and clay. Consult Macquoid's In the Ardennes.

Ardennes, department, North France, with only the northwestern portion in the Ardennes system. It is crossed by the Meuse and the Aisne, these rivers being joined by a canal. The climate is continental, and dry and pleasant in autumn. The department is agricultural in the centre and south, pastoral in the east, with a renowned race of sheep, and industrial (iron and textiles) in the Meuse Valley. Capital, Mézières; but its neighbor, Charleville, is twice as populous. Area, 2,028 square miles. Pop. (1901) 315,589; (1911) 318,896.

Ardestan, or ARDISTAN, town, Irak Adjemi province, Persia; 80 miles northeast of Ispahan. Pop. about 10,000.

Arditi, LUIGI (1822-1903), musical composer and conductor, was born in Crescentino, Piedmont. He studied music at Milan, and became an expert violinist. In 1841 he produced his opera I Briganti, and made his début as an operatic conductor at Vercelli in 1843. He conducted in Milan, London, Vienna, Madrid, Constantinople, St. Petersburg, Havana, and the large cities of the United States VOL. I.-Mar. '13

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(1846-56); and from 1858, when he settled in London, he was conductor at Her Majesty's Theatre. He is best known by his brilliant vocal compositions -e. g., Il Bacio and L'Ardita. Consult My Reminiscences (ed. by Baroness von Zedlitz).

Ardmore, town, Oklahoma, on the Gulf, Colorado, and Santa Fé Railroad; about 95 miles northeast of Fort Worth, Texas. It is in the lands of the Chickasaw Nation. It has cotton trade, and asphalt and coal-mining interests. Hargrove College is the chief educational institution. Pop. (1900) 5,681; (1910) 8,618.

Ardrossan, seaport and watering place, Ayrshire, Scotland; 1 mile northwest of Saltcoats. Industries are shipbuilding, engineering, iron works, sawmills, and timber yards. Castle Craig Head was the site of a castle of the Montgomeries, which was captured by Wallace and demolished by Cromwell. Pop. (1901) 6,077; (1911) 11,720.

Ardsley, urban district, West Riding, Yorkshire, England; 2 miles east of Barnsley. It has collieries and glass works. Pop. (1911) 6,870.

Ardstraw, parish and village, county Tyrone, Ireland; 3 miles northwest of Newton-Stewart. It has freestone, lime, and clayslate quarries. Pop. 8,500.

Are (Latin area) in the French metric system is the unit of superficial measurement, being 100 square metres, equivalent to 119.6 square yards. The hectare (100 acres)=2.47 imperial acres.

Areca. See BETEL-NUT PALM. Arecibo, town, north coast of Porto Rico, West Indies, capital of department of Arecibo, at the outlet of the Rio Grande de Arecibo; 40 miles west of San Juan. It exports coffee and sugar. There is a lighthouse 120 feet high, with white light, visible 17 nautical miles. Pop. 10,000.

Arecibo, department, north coast of Porto Rico, having Aquadilla on the west, Bayamon on the east, and Ponce on the south. The department is traversed by the Rio Grande de Arecibo and several tributaries which flow north through picturesque valleys in which are plantations of coffee and sugar. Banana trees are cultivated everywhere, and there are cocoanut groves on the low coast lands. The macadamized military road from Ponce crosses the department to Arecibo. Area, 620 square miles. Pop. 160,000.

Arenaceous Rocks, a class of sedimentary rocks composed essentially of quartz particles, formed by the disintegration of other silicious rocks. Among the important varieties, depending on the size and state of aggrega

Areopagus

tion of the constituent particles, are sand, gravel, shingle, sandstone, quartzite and conglomerate. See SANDSTONE.

Arenaria, or SANDWORT, a large genus of rock and alpine plants, belonging to the pink family, of wide distribution. They are low, mainly tufted herbs, either annual or perennial; and they have small, sessile leaves and white flowers, generally in terminal heads or cymes.

Arendal, or ARNDAL, town, Nedenas county, Norway, on the south coast; 36 miles northeast of Christiansand. It has timber and carrying trade, and iron mines. Pop. (1900) 4,370; (1910) 10,315.

Arenicola. See LUGWORM.

Arens, FRANZ Xavier (1856), German-American musical conductor and voice specialist, was born in Neef, Rhenish Prussia, and in 1866 emigrated to the United States. In 1885 he was graduated from the Royal Conservatory of Music, Dresden. He conducted the Philharmonic Orchestra of Cleveland, O. (1885-8) and the American Composers' concerts at Vienna and in other European capitals (1890-2). From 1892 to 1897 he resided in Indianapolis, Ind., directing the May music festivals, and acting as president of the Metropolitan School of Music, and as head of its vocal department. He was conductor of the New York Manuscript Society concerts in 1898; and in 1900 he founded and has since conducted the New York People's Symphony Concerts.

Arensky, ANTON STEPHANOVITCH (1861-1906), Russian musical composer, was born in Novgorod. He was professor at the Moscow Conservatoire (1883-95), and director of the imperial choir at St. Petersburg. He wrote three operas-Un Songe sur le Volga (1892), Raphael (1894), and Nal et Damayanti (1899), besides symphonies, etc. His trio (Op. 32) and quintet (Op. 51) for pianoforte and strings are well known. In his Attempts at Some Forgotten Rhythms (1894) he revived some interesting ancient forms.

Areometer. See HYDROMETER. Areopagus, 'Hill of Ares (Mars), a hill in Athens, west of the Acropolis; on its northern slope stood the temple of Ares. It gave its name to the council of the Areopagus, which met there. This council represents the 'council of elders' possessed by every Aryan nation. Until the establishment of the democracy, it constituted the government of Athens; but Solon's council of 400, and Clisthenes' of 500, took away some of its powers, which were further re

Arequipa

duced (460 B.C.) by Ephialtes and Pericles. Its composition in earlier days is unknown; but from 600 B.C. it consisted of exarchons.

Arequipa, coast department, Southern Peru, with an area of 22,000 square miles. The region along the coast is a desert furrowed by gorges of the streams descending from the Andes. Rain seldom falls. The small river valleys are fertile, and produce coffee, sugar cane, and cotton. The railroad from Mollendo to Arequipa and Puno (325 miles) continues into Northwestern Bolivia, bringing merchandise to the coast for export Pop. 230,000.

Arequipa, city, capital of Arequipa department, Peru, the second largest city in the republic, on the Chile River; 500 miles southeast of Lima. It stands at the base of the volcano El Misti (q. v.), in the former bed of a lake. It is 107 miles (by rail) from its seaport Mollendo, on an important railroad, which continues to Puno, on Lake Titicaca, crossing the Andes at a height of 14,660 feet above sea level. The town, which was founded by Francisco Pizarro in 1540, has suffered severely from earthquakes-most disastrously in 1868. Besides the cathedral, there are large churches, monasteries, and convents, and a university. Near the town are the springs of Tingo and Jesus, the latter impregnated with carbonic acid, and with a temperature of 87° F., and Yura (17 m.), with a temperature above 90° F.

Arequipa sends to Mollendo for shipment sheep, alpaca, and vicuna wool, borate of lime, ores, etc. There is extensive manufacture of jewelry, and fabrics with gold and silver threads. Gold, silver, and copper are mined in the vicinity. The shops of the Southern Railroad are located here. Harvard University has maintained here a branch astronomical observatory, where meteorological observations of great value have been secured. Alt. 7,850 feet. Pop. 40,000. See EL MISTI.

Ares, the Greek god of war, whom the Romans identified with their god Mars, is represented as the son of Zeus and Hera. He is represented by Homer as not on equal terms with the other Olympians, and is somewhat of a swashbuckler and ruffian. He is constantly in undignified positions-as when Athene and Diomedes drive him from the field (Iliad, v.), and the pain of his wounds makes him roar as loud as 9,000 or 10,000 warriors together, and Zeus refuses him sympathy; and, again, VOL. I.-Mar. '13

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in his amour with Aphrodite (Odyssey, VIII.), Sophocles calls him 'the god unhonored among the gods divine (Ed. Tyr.). His worship originally belonged to Thrace, where Dionysos was his younger rival. This 'barbarous origin' lowered the estimate of him in Greece.

Aretæus (c. 100 A. D.), a Greek physician who is ranked next after Hippocrates as a diagnoser of diseases. He was born in Cappadocia; practised in Rome; and left two important medical works, written in elegant and concise Ionic Greek.

The

Arethusa, a genus of Orchidaceæ, represented in America by A. bulbosa. It is found generally in large colonies in sphagnum bogs, having a tiny bulb, and a solitary linear leaf. flower is borne at the top of a scape about a foot high, and is nearly two inches long itself. It is magenta-pink in hue, with a drooping, mottled lip, bearded and crested with white hairs in three ridges. It blooms at the end of spring.

Arethusa, one of the Nereids, and nymph of the famous fountain of the same name in the island of Ortygia, near Syracuse. See ALPHEUS.

Aretino, PIETRO (1492–1557), Italian poet and satirist, was born in Arezzo, whence he was banished on account of his lampoon against indulgences. He worked as a bookbinder at Perugia; visited Rome (1517), where he was favorably received by Pope Leo x., whose patronage, however, he lost by the publication of obscene sonnets as letterpress to drawings by Giulio Romano. He then became a client of Giovanni de' Medici, and received favors from Francis I. of France and Charles v. of Germany. His later days were spent in Venice. Although his life was licentious and venal, and his writings impudent, Pietro enjoyed extraordinary popularity for the wit of his verses and plays. He wrote dialogues (Ragionamenti, 1535-38), five prose comedies (Il Marescalco, 1533; La Cortigiana, 1534; L'Ipocrito, 1542; La Talanta, 1542, and Il Filosofo, 1546), a tragedy (Orazia, 1546), letters (6 vols. 1538-57), and sonnets, the last of which have been translated into French under the title of Académie des Dames. Consult Lives by Sinigaglia, Schultheiss, and Bertani.

Arezzo, province of Italy, forming the southeast division of Tuscany, stretching across the main chains of the Central Apennines. Cereals, wine, fodder crops, olives, etc., are grown, and woollens, hats, and leather are the chief industries. Area, 1,273

Argand Burner

square miles. Pop. (1900) 272,359; (1911) 284,520.

Arezzo (ancient Arretium), city, capital of above and episcopal see, 55 miles by rail southeast of Florence, stands on the side of a hill overlooking the valley of the Chiana. It was one of the twelve confederate cities of the ancient Etruscans, and possesses several very interesting buildings of the thirteenth to the fifteenth century. Chief among them is the Gothic Cathedral, begun in 1277, and containing_monumental tombs of Pope Gregory X., who died here in 1276, and of Tarlati, the warlike bishop of Arezzo (died 1327). Silk, cloth, leather, pottery, etc., are manufactured. It is the birthplace of Mæcenas, the patron of Horace, and of the poet Petrarch (1304). Pop. (1901) 44,316; (1911) 47,498.

Argæus (Turkish Arjish-Dagh or Erjish-Dagh), extinct volcano and loftiest mountain in Asia Minor; 10 miles south of Kaisarieh. It was active in the time of Strabo and Claudian (first to fourth century). Alt. over 13,000 feet.

Argali, an Asiatic mountain sheep (Ovis vignei), ranging from Western Tibet to Kamchatka, on the highest ranges and plateaus, but becoming increasingly scarce, and difficult to stalk. It grows to the size of a donkey, and is covered by short, coarse, gray-brown hair, the rump and under surface of the body being white. The rams carry great coiled horns, often measuring 15 inches around the base and over 40 inches along the curve.

The term Argali is sometimes extended to include the whole group of mountain sheep with coiled horns, of which Poli's sheep in the Pamir and the North American bighorns are striking examples.

Argall, SIR SAMUEL (c. 15801626), an English adventurer and naval officer, deputy-governor of Virginia (1617-19). In 1609 he discovered a short route to Virginia; and in April, 1612, by gaining possession of Pocahontas, the daughter of the Indian chief Powhatan, as a hostage, not only secured the return of English captives held by Powhatan, but also brought about more peaceful relations with the Indians. In 1613 he destroyed the French settlements of Mount Desert, Port Royal, and St. Croix, in Nova Scotia. As deputy-governor of Virginia (1617-19) he was charged with dishonesty and usurpation of powers. After leaving Virginia, he commanded an English and Dutch squadron, which inflicted severe damage upon Spanish merchantmen.

Argand Burner, invented by Argand of Geneva about 1782.

Argao

Used in oil lamps, the wick rises through a hollow ring, so as to admit air to both surfaces of the flame, with the effect of greatly increasing the light and heat. Gas burners are also made on this principle, the gas rising through a hollow ring perforated with small holes. By means of a chimney the flame is steadied, and a draught created.

Argao, town, east coast, Cebu, Philippine Islands; 35 miles southwest of Cebu. It is on the main highway. The race and language are Visayan. Coal, gold, and silver are found on the island, and hemp and sugar are produced. Pop. 38,000.

Argel, or ARGHEL (Syrian), a name given in Syria and the Levant to Solenostemma argel (natural order Asclepiadacea), a plant whose leaves are used in Egypt for the adulteration of senna leaves, from which they are distinguishable by their leathery texture, downy surface, and the symmetry of their sides.

Argelander, FRIEDRICH WILHELM AUGUST (1799-1875), German astronomer, was born in Memel. He was the pupil and assistant of Bessel at Königsberg. From 1823 to 1827 he was director of the Abo Observatory, which was removed to Helsingfors about 1832. In 1837 he became professor of astronomy at Bonn, where he published an able celestial atlas, Uranometria Nova, in 1843. In continuation of Bessel's work, he determined the position of 22,000 stars, described in his Astronomische Beobachtungen zu Bonn.

Argemone, a genus of the Papaveraceæ, commonly called 'prickly poppy,' found in the Southern United States, and in Mexico. They have primatified, more or less spiny leaves; the inch-long capsules are also spiny. The yellow-flowered A. Mexicana furnishes, in its seeds, a painters' oil.

Argensola, BARTOLOMEO LEONARDO (1565-1631), Spanish poet and historian, was born in Barbastro. With his elder brother Lupercio (q. v.) he was the leader of the so-called Aragonese school of Spanish literature. He succeeded Lupercio as annalist of Aragon, and also wrote a History of the Conquest of the Moluccas (1609). The poetical works of the two brothers, who were styled 'the Horaces of Spain,' were published first in Saragossa in 1634. Consult Mir's B. L. de Argensola.

Argensola, LUPERCIO LEONARDO (1563-1613), Spanish poet and historian, brother of Bartolomeo (q. v.). His genius and works, poetical and historical, were similar to those of his brother, and give him a high VOL. I.-Mar. '13

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place in Spanish literature. He was secretary to the ex-Empress Maria of Austria at Madrid, chronicler of Aragon, and secretary of state to the viceroy of Naples. He wrote three dramas, Isabela, Filis, and Alexandra, the first two praised by the canon in Don Quixote; but he is best known for his lyric poems and

sonnets.

Argenson, D', name of a distinguished French family of Touraine, of whom the most famous are: (1.) MARC RENÉ DE VOYER (1652-1721), chief of police in Paris (1697-1718), president of the council of finance (1718-20) in the time of Robert Law, with whom he secretly co-operated, but in favor of whom he was dismissed in 1720. (2.) RENÉ LOUIS VOYER, MARQUIS (16941757), son of Marc René, foreign secretary (1744-7); author of Considérations sur le Gouvernement de la France (1764), and useful Mémoires. (3.) MARC PIERRE DE VOYER, COUNT (16961764), brother of René Louis; minister of war (1742-57). He labored for the reorganization of the army, and founded (1751) the military school. The friend of Diderot, who dedicated the Encyclopédie to him, and of Voltaire, he incurred the enmity of Madame Pompadour, and was exiled, but returned to Paris at her death. (4.) MARC RENÉ de VOYER (1771-1842), a wealthy aristocrat who in the revolution was Lafayette's aide-de-camp for a time.

Argent, in heraldry (q. v.), is the metal silver, usually represented by white.

Argenta, town, Pulaski county, Arkansas, on the Arkansas River, and the Choctaw, Oklahoma, and Gulf and other railroads. It is a trading centre in cotton and cottonseed oil. Pop. (1910) 11,138.

Argenta, town, Emilia, Italy; 20 miles southeast of Ferrara. Pop. 20,000.

Argentan, town, department Orne, France; 27 miles by rail north of Alençon. It has manufactures of lace (point d'Argentan), linen, and gloves. It contains an old castle (fifteenth century). The historian Mézeray (1610) was born near here. Pop. (1901) 6,291; (1911) 6,870.

Argentera, PUNTA DELL', the highest summit (10,794 ft.) of the Maritime Alps, southwest of Cuneo, in Piedmont.

Argenteuil, town, department of Seine-et-Oise, France, on the Seine; 8 miles northwest of Paris. It has market gardening; also quarries, watchmaking, and wine industries. Pop. (1901) 17,375; (1911) 24,282.

Argentière, COL D', an easy Alpine pass (6,545 ft.) leading

Argentine Republic

from Barcelonnette, in the French valley of the Ubaye (an affluent of the Durance), to the Italian valley of the Stura, and so to Cuneo. Napoleon made a carriage road across it, but the pass was known to the Romans (remains found), though it only came into prominence_when crossed by Francis 1. of France and his army in 1515. Some have supposed that it was Hannibal's pass, but this was probably the Mont Genèvre.

Argentina. See BAHIA BLANCA. Argentine, a species of smelt frequenting the southern coast waters of Europe and seined in schools along with sardines and anchovies. It is remarkable for the resplendent silvery lustre of its sides, and for the abundance of nacre about the air bladder, used in making artificial pearls.

Argentine, former city, Kansas. It was annexed to Kansas City, Kans., in 1910.

Argentine Republic, the most progressive of South American states, and the second in size, is bounded on the north by Bolivia and Paraguay; on the east by Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, and the Atlantic Ocean; on the south by Chile and the Atlantic Ocean; on the west by the Andes Mountains. It lies between lat. 22° and 55° s., and long. 53° 30′ and 70° w. Area, 1,135,840 square miles.

TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY.— The northern part of the Republic slopes very gradually from the coast northwest to the Bolivian basin, where the watershed between the affluents of the Paraguay River and the headwaters of the Madeira lies only 800 or 900 feet above sea level. At a very recent geological period this country was the basin of a vast sea, covering about 600,000 square miles. On the south it seems to have been bounded by the Archæan and Paleozoic sierras of Tandil, Ventana, etc., stretching across the province of Buenos Ayres from Cape Corrientes. On the west the Sierra de Cordoba rose as islands above the sea, and the Salina Grande was a fjord opening into it. Into this great basin the rivers carried their silt.

The southern extremity of the republic, Patagonia, is a plateau of Tertiary sandstone, interrupted here and there by old eruptive rocks and Archæan schists, which slopes up west to the watershed, where Cretaceous rocks are exposed. It is intersected by deep depressions, many of the m drained by the existing rivers flowing to the Atlantic. Along the watershed-a succession of elevations, 6,000 to 7,000 feet high-lies a series of lakes, some of which now drain to the Pacific;

Argentine Republic

but occasionally, when the water is high, send part of their overflow to the Atlantic. The land has risen even within historic times, and the lakes, to a great extent excavated by glacial action, are drying up.

From the great lake Nahuelhuapi (41° s. lat.) to 34° s. lat. the Andes consist of a single chain. Farther north a succession of sierras lies to the east of the main chain, the chief being the Uspallata, Huerta, and Famatima, and the prolongation of the Cordillera Real of Bolivia, with summits rising to 19,000 feet. Near the southern extremity of this region are found the loftiest peaks of the main Cordillera-e. g., Aconcagua (in which the American continent culminates at a height of 23,080 feet), the extinct volcano Tupungato, and Maipu.

The largest hydrographic basin is that of the Parana and its tributaries. Many rivers lose themselves in the swamps and sands of the pampas. Of the rivers of Patagonia, the Negro is the most important for navigation.

Several lakes are scattered over the country; the finest are those in the west of Patagonia-the beautiful Nahuel-huapi (2,100 feet above sea level, and 200 square miles in area), the Buenos Ayres (75 miles long and 558 feet above the sea), and others. The Argentine has an indented seaboard of 2,000 miles.

CLIMATE.-The mean temperature in the central part of the Republic is not much higher than that of Southern Europe, and the extremes are not excessive. The mean temperature at Buenos Ayres (63° F.) is nearly the same as at Cadiz, Spain. In the northern and midland provinces it is higher-e. g., 71° at Corrientes, and 67° at Tucuman. Mendoza, near the Andes, at an elevation of 2,500 feet, has a mean temperature of only 61°. At Rawson, on the Chubut, the mean temperature is 56°, and in Southern Patagonia the climate is cold. The rainfall-34 inches at Buenos Ayres and 46 inches at Rosario-diminishes toward the Andes, being only 13 inches at Rioja and 3 inches at San Juan. The prevailing wind is the southeast. The pampero, from the southwest, is cold and invigorating, the north wind relaxing and unhealthy.

FAUNA. The fauna is rapidly vanishing. The puma and jaguar are still found in the lesspopulated districts of the Chaco and Patagonia. The viscacha is becoming scarce; and armadillos, esteemed a delicate dish, are killed in large numbers. The huemul (Cervus chilensis), the VOL. I.-Mar. '13

351 A

guanaco, and the rhea, or American ostrich, roam over the Patagonian plateaus. The peccary and anta, a species of tapir, are confined to the north. The Patagonian hare, weighing 25 pounds, and a weasel with a pouch for its young, are peculiar.

Birds are more numerous than mammals. They include the condor of the Andes and other birds of prey, humming-birds, game birds, and a large variety of water fowl. The African or plume-bearing ostrich has been introduced, and in 1909 422,783 were reported. Plumes amounting in value to $40,297 were exported in 1911.

FORESTRY.-There are thirty varieties of costly woods now (1913) being worked by numerous companies whose invested capital is estimated at $13,725,000. The most extensive forests are in Misiones, El Chaco, and Formosa. Misiones yields a quantity of valuable fibres, and the yerba maté, or Paraguay tea, as well as excellent timber for building and cabinet work and dyewood. The acacia, algarrobo lapacho, button tree, cedar, bay, besides other black, red, and white varieties, are plentiful.

The export of quebracho colorado, a tanning hardwood, is rapidly increasing. In 1911 the exports of quebracho extract and wood were valued at $2,138,954. Along the foot of the Andes the woods consist chiefly of Winter's bark, Fitzroya patagonica, and Libocedrus. The value of forest products exported in 1911 was $11,927,407.

MINING.-Minerals, including gold, silver, copper, lead, antimony, and petroleum, are widely distributed in the western provinces. La Rioja, Catamarca, and Salta are especially rich in copper.

Good coal and petroleum are found in Mendoza, Jujuy, and Comadoro Rivadavia, and superior lignite in Tierra del Fuego. The mining industry is at present little developed, as the mines are too far from the railways to be profitably worked.

AGRICULTURE.-The country. is well suited for agriculture. Wheat, maize, and linseed-i. e., flaxseed-are grown, especially in Buenos Ayres and Santa Fé, as well as at the Welsh colonies on the Chubut. Wine comes principally from the western provinces-Mendoza, San Juan, La Rioja, and Salta. Tucuman produces the most sugar, and Corrientes ranks first as a tobacco district. Lucerne (alfalfa) is one of the principal crops, and is grown in almost all the provinces. Good cotton is raised in the northern provinces.

The area of the Argentine is about 728,680,000 acres, of which

Argentine Republic

about 253,195,000 acres are suitable for agriculture or stock raising. West of Cordoba, and in Patagonia, the rainfall is often insufficient, and there is considerable risk from drought. Of the cultivable area, about 10,000,000 acres require irrigation. Several irrigation works are in progress (1913), including a great dam in the valley of the River Negro, and a canal from the River Neuquen.

The great central pampa, which constitutes the larger part of the agricultural and pastoral area, is a woodless plain of remarkable fertility; but in part of it the soil and water are saline, and therefore adapted only to certain purposes.

The absence of small navigable streams and good roads retarded the opening up of the country; but in recent years the railroads have greatly aided land development. In 1880 the total area of land under cultivation was 3,705,560 acres; in 1911 it had risen to 46,939,180 acres. In 1912-13, 17,088,572 acres were under wheat, 13,588,000 under corn, 4,281,325 under flax, and 2,946,463 under oats. The estimated production of wheat for 1912-13 was 5,400,000 tons; corn (1912), 7,515,000 tons; flaxseed, 1,130,000 tons; - oats, 1,682,000 tons.

STOCK RAISING.-Since the sixteenth century the cattle industry has flourished on the grassy plains of Santa Fé and Buenos Ayres. In 1912 there were in the Argentine Republic 33,484,188 cattle, 7,911,085 horses, 77,303,517 sheep, 4,940,000 goats, 1.824,550 pigs, and 940,000 mules and asses. In recent years extensive frozen meat and dairying industries have grown up from stock raising; while the exports of chilled and frozen meat have largely superseded the export of live stock. In 1896 live-stock exports amounted to $4,975,000; in 1911 they were valued at only $500,000. In 1911 the exports of chilled and frozen meat amounted to 242,412,044 pounds, or 121,206 tons of 2,000 pounds each. Of this, 72,236 tons were beef, and 60,920 tons mutton and lamb. In 1910 there were 8 freezing establishments, 545 creameries, 18 butter factories, 111 cheese-making establishments, and 37 mixed factories.

TRANSPORTATION. — Early in 1913 there were 19,240 miles of railway in operation. The principal lines radiate from Buenos Ayres north, northwest, southwest, and west to Mendoza. From Mendoza a line crosses the Andes through the Uspallata Pass, and is continued to the Pacific Ocean at Valparaiso, the capital of