Arapahoes

of Nagy-Körös, whence he passed (1860) to Budapest as director of the Kisfaludy Society. Elected member of the Hungarian Academy in 1859, he became its perpetual secretary in 1865. Arany is, after Petöfi, the most popular and important modern poet of Hungary.

Arapahoes, N. American Indians, a western branch of the Algonquin linguistic family, are supposed to have migrated from the Great Lake region through the Plains to the south-west. They have adopted the customs of the other Plains tribes, and are noted for the symbolic character of their decorative art. At present they occupy reservations in Wyoming and Oklahoma. See A. L. Kroeber, Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. xiii.; Geo. A. Dorsey, Field Columbian Museum Publications 75 and 81.

Arapaima, a genus of tropical fresh-water fishes allied to the herrings, with bony, compound scales. A. gigas of the Amazon is the largest fresh-water fish known, and attains 15 ft. in length. They are highly colored, and their flesh is greatly esteemed.

Ararat. 'Mount Ararat' is a misnomer, Ararat being a region or country (Armenia), as may be seen even from Gen. 8: 4, 'The ark rested upon the moun

tains of Ararat' (cf. 2 Kings 19: 37; Isa. 37: 38; Jer. 51: 27). The Babylonian account of the flood makes the ark take ground upon the mountain of Nizir,' in E. Assyria; while Nicolaus Damascenus states that its resting-place was a great mountain in Armenia called Baris' (Josephus, Ant. 1. iii. 6), or Lubar, between Armenia and Kurdistan. The tradition which identifies 'Mount Ararat' with Mt. Massis, a double volcanic (eruption 1840) peak (16,950 and 13,220 ft.) in the N. of Armenia, is modern, and we cannot now determine which (if any) particular range was in the mind of the scriptural writer. See Professor Bryce's Transcaucasia and Ararat (4th ed., 1897); Dillmann's Genesis on Gen. 8:4; also ARMENIA and Deluge.

Aras (Araxes), large riv. of Armenia; rises in Erzerum vilayet. For the greater part of its course of 600 m. it forms the boundary between Russia (Cis-Caucasia) and Persia. It formerly joined the Kura 60 m. w. of its mouth; but in 1897 it changed its lower course, and now flows direct into the Caspian Sea at Kizil Agach Bay.

Aratus OF SICYON (271-213 B.C.), a Greek general and statesman. In 251 B.C. he expelled the tvrant Nicocles, and united (251) Sicyon to the Achæan league (see АCHÆI), and in 245 B.C.

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was chosen general of the league, which office he held for many years. He also obtained the accession to the league of Megara, Argos, and other cities; but this aroused the jealousy of the Etolians and of Cleomenes, king of Sparta, and Aratus was obliged, for safety, to secure an alliance with the king of Macedonia. Ptolemy, king of Egypt, joined the Etolians and Cleomenes, and in a succession of battles Aratus and the Achæans were defeated. At this crisis Antigonus of Macedon arrived with his army to assist Aratus, and defeated the Spartans at the battle of Sellasia (222 B.C.). But finally the relations between Antigonus's successor, Philip, and Aratus became so strained that the king procured the death of the latter by poison in 213 B.C. Aratus left thirty books of memoirs (now lost), which were drawn upon by Polybius and Plutarch.

Aratus OF SOLI, Cilicia, a Greek poet and astronomer, flourished about 270 B.C., only two of whose works are extant, the Phanomena and the Diosemeia. The former treats of astronomy, and the latter of the weather. Cicero and Germanicus translated them, and Virgil made use of them in the Georgics.

Araucanians, a historical S. American nation, whose territory comprised that part of Chile which lies between the Bio-Bio and Valdivia Rs., and bordered N. on the Peruvian empire. The national name was Mapu-che (Men of War), a name fully justified by an indomitable courage, which enabled them to stem the southward advance of the Incas and hold out for centuries against the Spaniards. Their prowess was the theme of Ercilla's epic poem Araucana (1597), and Alvarez de Toledo's Curen Indomito (1861); and in 1773 Spain recognized the independence of their four confederate states. The pure Araucanian population is now estimated at less than 50,000. The Araucanians are an undersized but vigorous race. Their chief industry is the breeding of cattle and vicunas. All are polyg amists, and their religion is based on the principle of good and evil (A po, Pillan). Araucan, a language of high polysynthetic type, has been reduced to written form, and in it are embodied a large number of myths and national legends.

Araucaria, a genus of Coniferæ with evergreen leaves, of a singularly geometrical hal it of growth, is considered the oldest of the conifers. A. imbricata, popularly called the monkey puzzle or Chile pine, grows to a great height if protected from wind and frost, and is used for the masts of ships.

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In its native country, Chile, the tree produces a seed which is used for food, and also a fragrant resin. The A. excelsa, or Norfolk Island pine, attains a height of 200 ft., having heavy white wood. Like other species, A. excelsa is used in greenhouses as a stiff ornamental plant, having branches in whorls, and linear and spreading leaves.

Arauco (4,248 sq. m.), prov. on the Pacific slope, 40 m. s. of Concepcion, Chile; has coal mines. Pop. (1895) 59,237. Cap. Lebu.

Araure, tn., Venezuela, 170 m. s.w. of Caracas. Nearby was fought the battle of Arame, Dec. 4, 1813. Pop. over 4,000.

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Arawaks, S. American Indians who formerly ranged over great part of N. Brazil, the Guianas, and Venezuela, and appear to have formed the chief element in the W. Indies and Bahamas. They are still numerous on the mainland. All alike are rude, uncultured tribes, who have nowhere advanced beyond a low grade of social organization, but are mostly of a peaceful disposition, the chief exception being the Goajiros of Venezuela.

Arayat, tn., in the Prov. of Pampanga, Luzon, Philippines, 12 miles N.E. of Bacolor. In the Filipino insurrection in Oct., 1899, the place was occupied by the U. S. troops of General S. B. M. Young, who was in command in No. Luzon. Pop. about 15,000.

Arbaces, the Mede, who, according to the historian Ctesias, overthrew the Assyrian empire in the seventh century B.C. by defeating Sardanapalus, and founded the Median. Another of the name was a general of Artaxerxes Memnon in his war with his brother Cyrus (401 B.C.).

Arbela, city of Adiabene, Assyria, famous as a centre for the worship of Istar, and as the headquarters of Darius before his defeat by Alexander (331 B.C.). The battle of Arbela was really fought near Gaugamela, about 50 m. w.

Arbitrage, in stockbroking the buying and selling at one and the same time, but in different markets, of stocks, bonds, bills, shares, etc., so as to derive a profit from the difference between the quotations in such markets. Dealings on the New York and London stock exchanges are perhaps the most important of this class of transactions.

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citizens and civic organizations such as the National Civic Federation (see that article) have been instrumental in the formation of boards of arbitration which, although acting in only a semiofficial capacity, have succeeded in bringing about a settlement of disputes between employers and employees, before an actual strike or lockout has been declared.

In many of the states statutory provision is made for the formation of a permanent board of arbitration, before which, either by mutual consent of both parties or upon application of a single party, industrial disputes may be arbitrated. In some cases provision is made for the appointment of local and temporary boards to settle minor disputes. A federal statute provides for mediation in controversies between common carriers and their employees, and in case such mediation fails, then for the formation of a local board of arbitration at the request or upon the consent of both parties.

Compulsory arbitration laws have been enacted in Australasia, the first and most noteworthy of which is that of New Zealand, enacted in 1894 and since amended in certain respects. This experiment has been watched with great interest and for a while it proved apparently so effective that the enactment of similar laws was advocated by various influential economists and legislators. Within recent years, however, the act has proven so inadequate in certain notable instances that confidence in it has been greatly lessened. A prominent economist has said that 'The difficulty with compulsory arbitration is fundamental. Not even the State can compel a man to work if he does not want to do so. The experience, even in New Zealand of late, indicates that compulsory arbitration is impracticable. It certainly would be in this country.'

While

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board is usually quite sufficient to prevent actual conflict.

Arbitration, INTERNATIONAL, is an adaptation by independent nations to their own differences of the system of settling disputes between private individuals by reference to the judgment of a third party. And while, in the case of international arbitration, there is no true legal 'sanction,' it has been found that the sense of honor and the interest of the defeated government usually suffice to insure effective compliance with the award.

The nearest approach to modern international arbitration which is to be found in ancient times, is the interstate arbitration occasionally resorted to by the several Greek communities. It was not, however, until a later time, when Europe had separated into different kingdoms with some equality of status, that opportunity was given for the application of international arbitration in something like its present form. The Pope, for instance, not infrequently acted as arbitrator or mediator in the disputes between ambitious monarchs, or between the monarchs and their more powerful and turbulent vassals. Sometimes one king was called in to adjudicate the differences between two others. The awards given, however, were not always above suspicion; and the finding of the arbitrator was sometimes repudiated, or became the starting-point of a fresh dispute. No sketch of the history of international arbitration would complete without a reference to the Great Design' of Henry IV of France and his minister Sully. Those two statesmen dreamed of a mighty scheme of federation for all states of Christian Europe, under a common government, and it was an essential feature of their plan that all disputes should be decided by a council.

cause.

be

But it was not till the middle of the 19th century that the sympathies of statesmen and politicians became actively enlisted in the Resolutions in favor of a general and permanent system of arbitration were, after repeated failures, carried both in the American Congress and in the British House of Commons; and though, indeed, no immediate practical result was secured, still men's minds were more generally set to work upon the subject. In the early seventies the study of the problems involved in international arbitration received powerful stimulus from the establishment of the Institut de Droit International (Institute of International Law), and the Association for the Reform and Codification of the Laws of Nations, later

a

Arbitration

known as the International Law Association, bodies of jurists and public men of all countries, formed for the express purpose of discussing that large and somewhat indeterminate class of questions which arise under the law of nations. These efforts to promote the settlement of international disputes by peaceful means have been powerfully seconded by the Interparliamentary Union for International Arbitration, representing the legislative bodies of the principal nations of the world (instituted in 1888), by various associations, such as The American Peace Society, and by periodical meetings, such as that of the annual conference on International Arbitration, held at Lake Mohonk, in the state of New York, since 1895.

Concurrently with the theoretical discussion of schemes of international arbitration, a steadily growing practice arose in the last century among the great powers of the world of submitting certain kinds of disputes to this method of settlement. This practice-in which the United States has taken an honorable share-has fallen far short indeed of complete adhesion to the principle of universal and permanent arbitration. But each resort to arbitration has formed a precedent; and the obvious justice, convenience, and economy of this method of settling differences, have more and more recommended it to statesmen.

Among notable recent international arbitrations have been: (1) the arbitration at Geneva of the claims of the United States against Great Britain, growing out of the depredations of various Confederate cruisers constructed or fitted out in British jurisdiction, on American commerce during the Civil War, known as the Alabama Claims (1871-72); (2) the controversy between the United States and Great Britain regarding the Bering Sea seal fisheries (189293); (3) the controversy between Great Britain and Venezuela regarding boundaries (1896-99), and (4) between Great Britain and Russia over the attack made by Russian cruisers on English fishing vessels in the North Sea (1904–05).

Perhaps, however, the most notable advance in the direction of universal arbitration was taken in 1899, under the rescript of the Czar calling for a conference of the powers to arrive at a scheme of disarmament, which call resulted in The Hague Convention. The main project of that rescript, disarmament, was found impracticable; but the policy of the Czar was fully justified by the agreement of the powers to establish a permanent court of arbitration at The Hague. Opinion was

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obviously not ripe for a compulsory scheme of arbitration to meet all cases; but the success of that court gives the strongest encouragement to governments to avail themselves of its methods.

The impulse thus communicated has resulted in the adoption by several European states of general treaties of arbitration with their European neighbors, in which Great Britain has borne the leading part. Under the influence of the second International Conference held at The Hague in 1907, this process has been accelerated on both sides of the Atlantic, and the United States has now (January, 1910) concluded twenty-four limited treaties of arbitration with as many foreign powers, including all the leading nations except Russia and Germany.

Arbitration, LEGAL. The settlement of civil controversies by voluntary submission of the matter in dispute to a third person. While in general such a submission does not oust the courts of their juris liction over the matter in controversy, there is a growing tendency to give to private arbitration much of the conclusive effect of legal proceedings. This is effected partly by custom, the practice of submitting disputes to arbitration having become very common among business men and stock brokers, and partly through the legal regulation of arbitrations by statute in England and many American states. the former class of cases the binding force of the arbitration is due to the pressure of opinion within the community or group in which it is practised, which is, in the case of certain organizations or 'exchanges,' reinforced by rules requring arbitration in certain cases and compelling submission thereto. In Great Britain, arbitrations are conducted with the form of legal procee lings, the arbitrator being empowered to summon witnesses and examine them under oath, his award being enforceable like a judgment at law. In sev

In

eral of the United States a similar result has been reached by statute. The object of the legislation referred to has been merely to provide a means for the more convenient and expeditious settlement of disputes among private parties without compelling a resort to the more dilatory and expensive process of the law courts.

Arblay, MADAME D'. See BURNEY, FRANCES.

Arboga, tn., Sweden, prov. Vestmanland, situated on the Arboga R., affluent of Lake Mälar, 25 m.N.E. of Orebro, on the Köping-Orebro Ry. Pop. (1900) 5,254. Arbogast (d. 394), a Frank by origin, who distinguished himself as a Roman general under the

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Emperors Gratian (367-383) and Valentinian II. (388-392). Being dismissed by Valentinian, he refused to give up his command, and a few days later the emperor was killed at Vienna (Gaul) by order of Arbogast. He made the rhetorician Eugenius emperor. But after two years (394) the Emperor the East, Theodosius, invaded Italy, and defeated Arbogast near Aquileia. Eugenius was decapitated, and Argobast committed suicide. See Morpurgo's Arbogaste e l'Imperio Romano, 379-394 (1883).

Arbois de Jubainville, MARIE HENRI D' (1827), distinguished French philologist and historian, born at Nancy; professor of Celtic language and literature at the Collège de France (1882); member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres (1884). He is the author of many important books, as Histoire des Ducs et des Comtes de Champagne (7 vols., 1859-69); Les Premiers Habitants de l'Europe (1877; 2nd ed., 1889-94); Etudes Grammaticales sur les Langues Celtiques (1881); Le Cycle Mythologique Irlandais et la Mythologie Grecque (1884), which forms part of the Cours de Littérature Celtique (12 vols., 1883-1903), etc.

Arbor Day, a day set apart in the United States and in Canada for the planting of trees by children, to encourage forestry. The annual planting of trees under state auspices on a certain day is said to have been suggested in 1865 by B. G. Northrop, Sec'y Conn. Board of Education, and in 1872 the custom was adopted in Nebraska. Since that time it has spread, and certain days, usually in April or May, have been set apart by the state legislatures for this purpose. Arbor day was inaugurated in Ireland in 1904.

Arboriculture. See FORESTRY. Arbor Vitæ, the Thuja genus in the cypress family of conifers; includes aromatic and evergreen shrubs and trees of great variety, many of which are grown in the open or under glass in Britain. See THUJA.

Arbroath, formerly Aberbrothwick and Aberbrothock (mouth of the Brothock'), royal and parl. burgh, seapt. and manufacturing tn., Forfarshire, Scotland, 17 m. N.E. of Dundee. It manufactures linen, sail-cloth, and leather, and spins flax and jute. There are also machine shops and shipyards. The dock area is 2 ac. Ruins of the abbey founded by William the Lion in 1178. Arbroath is the

Fairport' of Scott's Antiquary. Pop. (1901) 22,398.

Arbuës, PEDRO DE (1441-85), Spanish inquisitor, born at Epila, Aragon; became an Augustine monk at Saragossa, and was appointed (1484) by Torquemada

Arcade

first inquisitor there. His excessive zeal in the persecution of the heretics led to his assassination in 1485. He was canonized by Popes Alexander VII. (1661) and Pius IX. (1867). He is the subject of W. von Kaulbach's Peter Arbues of Epila condemning a Family of Heretics to Death. See Zirngiebl's Peter Arbues (3rd ed., 1872).

Arbuthnot, JOHN (1667-1735), Scottish author and physician, was born at Arbuthnot, Kincardineshire, and graduated M.D. at St. Andrews. He was physician to Queen Anne, a close friend of Swift, and intimate with Pope and Gay. He was the author of the famous satire, The History of John Bull (1712). The Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus (1741), though published among Pope's works, is now ascribed to Arbuthnot. See Swift's Journal to Stella; Aitken's Life and Works of Arbuthnot (1892).,

Arbutus, a genus of evergreen shrubs of the Ericaceæ or heath order. A. unedo, the beautiful 'strawberry' tree (20 ft.), is cultivated in the warmer parts of the United States. The A. Menziesii, which grows to 100 ft. high, is the madroña of California. The trailing arbutus is an American creeping shrub of the heath family (Epigaa repens), famous for its early blooming, and fragrant, exquisite, pink and white flowers. Also known as gravel weed, and as mayflower.

Arc (Lat. bow'), a portion of any curved line. The straight line joining its ends is called the

chord'; the bisector of the chord at right angles, passing to the arc, is the sagitta or arrow.' Arc, JEANNE D'. See JOAN OF

ARC.

Arcachon, health resort, dep. Gironde, France, on the Bassin d'Arcachon, 35 m. s.w. of Bordeaux. The town proper is situaated on the lagoon; the winter town (since 1854) is composed of numerous villas scattered among the pinewoods. The climate is mild and bracing (59° F. average for the whole year, 48° F. average for winter). It is visited yearly by 200,000 persons. Oysters are extensively cultivated. The Bassin d'Arcachon is a triangular lagoon, 60 sq. m. in area, communicating with the sea at Cap Ferret. Pop. (1900), 8,259.

Arcade, a term in architecture very vaguely used-(1) a series of apertures or recesses with arched ceilings; (2) a single-arched aperture or enclosure, equivalent to a vault; (3) the space covered by a continued arch or vault supported on piers or columns. The first is the true arcade, behind which there is generally a walk or am

Arcadelt, Jacob

bulatory.

The Romans erected arcades one over the other. The piers of arcades may be decorated with various columns, pilasters, niches, and apertures.

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remarkable as (from 395) the first Emperor of the East, with his capital at Constantinople, his brother Honorius reigning at Rome as Emperor of the West.

An Arcade in the Ducal Palace, Venice.

Arcadelt, Jacob (d. 1575), musical composer, born in the Netherlands at the end of the 15th or beginning of the 16th century. He went to Rome in 1539, and was employed as a singer at the Vatican until 1555, when he accompanied Cardinal Charles of Lorraine to Paris. He wrote many masses, over two hundred madrigals for four and five voices, and a collection of songs.

Arcadia, a mountainous and picturesque country in the centre of the Peloponnesus, Greece; bounded by Achaia on the N., by Argolis on the E., by Laconia and Messenia on the s., and by Elis on the w.; entirely surrounded by mountains. Its chief towns were Tegea, Mantineia, and, after 370 B.C., Megalopolis. The Arcadians claimed to be the most ancient people in Greece- older than the moon,' according to the name they gave themselves. They were certainly a primitive people, chiefly occupied in pastoral pursuits and hunting. Their devotion to music is responsible for the Arcadia of modern poetry and romance. They retained their independence against the Spartans, and in the 3rd century B.C. joined the Achæan league, and, with its other members, submitted to the Romans in 146 B.C. See Grote's and Bury's Hists. of Greece.

Arcadius (377-408 A.D.), son of Theodosius, emperor of Rome;

He was a ruler of no ability, led by his favorites or by his empress Eudoxia. He was succeeded by his son Theodosius II.

Arce, FRANCISCO (1822-78), a Mexican settler in California, who, before the era of the Fortyniners' and the discovery of gold in the country, was attacked by a number of Americans, of Capt. J. C. Fremont's party, as he was conveying a number of horses southward for the Mexican government. The Arce' incident was one of several that preceded the raising of the Bear Flag in California and its annexation as one of the states of the Union.

Arcesilaus (316-241 B.C.), Greek philosopher, founder of the Middle Academy, and opponent of Zeno, the founder of the Stoa. A true successor to Pyrrho in his antagonism to the dogmatic schools, he denied that there is any standard by which truth and error may be distinguished. Our convictions, he said, are opinion rather than knowledge; but in the practical or moral sphere we must be guided by probability. See Schwegler's Geschichte der Griechischen Philosophie (Eng.) trans. J. H. Stirling, 1888).

Arch, a structure of brickwork or masonry, or of iron or steel ribs, whereby a load is supported over an open space, as in doorways, windows, roofs, bridges, and tunnels. The word is not applied to a straight horizontal support, such as a lintel or girder,

Arch

which fulfils its purpose by its mere tensile strength and rigidity. Arches are, as the name implies, curved (or polyhedral) structures designed to receive the load equally at all points, and to transmit the pressure through elements (stones, ribs, etc.) placed in the 'line of pressure.' The latter has a definite geometrical form for every amount and distribution of load, and it is the business of the architect or engineer to calculate where that curved line of pressure will lie, and to build his arch to coincide with it. Architects have yet given to the arch a wonderful variety of forms, and it has been the most important factor in determining the several architectural styles of history. The buildings of the Egyptian and Greek civilizations employed the lintel rather than the arch, being, in fact, developments in stone of the art of construction with timber; and the introduction of steel girders (which, in this respect, have the same qualities as wooden beams) has, for many purposes, eliminated the arch, vault, and dome from modern structures. A typical arch is supported by two piers, the distance between which is the span of the arch. Above each pier is a horizontal block, the impost; then the springer, or lowest voussoir of the curve; then other voussoirs, all wedge-shaped; until at the apex is reached the keystone, which is the centre of the arch. The concave side of the arch is the intrados, the convex the extrados; the rise is the height of the intrados at its highest point, above the middle of the line joining the top of the imposts; the thrust is the pressure which the arch exerts outwards. Masonry arches are built upon a wooden structure, called a centering, which is afterward removed. The diagram shows the most notable forms of arch, indicating the style of architecture with which each is associated. The engineering questions involved are discussed under BRIDGES. See also ARCHITECTURE.

Arch, TRIUMPHAL, a monumental arch erected by the Romans in honor of an individual, or to commemorate some historical event, usually a great victory. Such structures were originally temporary wooden erections festooned with garlands of flowers, stretching across the road or street along which the victorious general and his army entered the city. Afterward the triumuhal arch became a massive, highly ornamental, permanent piece of archi tecture, decorated with appropriate bas-reliefs and inscriptions. The oldest, although not now in existence, were those erected in honor of Scipio Africanus (190

Arch

B.C.) and Fabius Maximus (120 B.C.). Among surviving arches there are three at Rome-the Arch of Titus (80 A.D.), erected in honor of the conquest of Judea (it is richly sculptured, and shows reliefs of Titus in triumph, with the plunder of the temple at Jerusalem); the Arch of Septimius Severus (203 A.D.), erected in commemoration of his victories over the Parthians; and the Arch of Constantine (312 A.D.), which has a large central archway with a smaller arch on either side, and four Corinthian columns on each front. It was the greatest and most lavishly decorated of all, and was erected in honor of Constanine's victory over Maxentius. Triumphal arches existed also in all parts of the Roman empireas at Ancona; at Benevento (114 A.D.), in honor of the Emperor Trajan; and at Saint-Rémy and Carpentras, in honor of Marcus Aurelius. In modern times there are the arch erected at Naples in honor of Alphonso of Aragon (in the 15th century); the Arco della Pace at Milan (in the 19th century); the two arches erected by the municipality of Paris in honor of Louis XIV., called afterward Porte Saint-Denis and Porte Saint-Martin; the Arc du Carrousel (1806), and the Arc de Triomphe de l'Etoile (1836), both at Paris, and both dedicated to the Grande Armée. The Arc de Triomphe de l'Etoile is situated at the end of the Champs Elysées, in the middle of a circus from which twelve large avenues radiate. Its erection was begun by Napoleon I. after the battle of Austerlitz (1806), and completed in 1836. It stands 150 ft. high, is 135 ft. broad and 69 ft. deep. It is splendidly decorated and adorned with allegorical statues, and contains the names of the principal victories of Napoleon, and of 386 generals who took part in the battles of the revolution and of the first empire. The Arc du Carrousel, in the square of the same name in Paris, was erected by Napoleon in 1806, after the model of the Arch of Septimius Severus in Rome. Other notable arches are the Brandenburger Thor at Berlin, the Siegesthor at Munich; and in America the Washington Arch at New York, Memorial Arch at Brooklyn, and others.

Arch, JOSEPH (1826), agitator (1867-1900) in favor of farm laborers, was born in Warwickshire; worked as a farm hand; became a Methodist preacher; founded the National Agricultural Laborers' Union (1872); was elected to Parliament as a Liberal (1885). See his Autobiography, ed. by Countess of Warwick (1898).

Archæan System. A geological term applied to those rocks VOL. 1.-21