Architecture

between 1850 and 1870. Among its chief monuments are the Houses of Parliament in London and the Natural History Museum in a sort of modified Romanesque, at South Kensington. The corresponding movement in France, which began about 1845 under Viollet-le-Duc, took the form of an accurate and tasteful restoration of mediæval monuments. In Germany and Austria the principal result was a number of important church buildings. Although it had an elevating influence upon church building, the Gothic style was found as little adapted to the requirements of modern architecture.

Recent Architecture.-In France the Ecole des Beaux Arts has exercised a conservative tendency in the direction of a uniform, refined, and correct architecture. The preferred style is usually the Renaissance. The reign of Napoleon III. was signalized by the completion of the Louvre and Tuileries by Visconti and Lefuel, the most noteworthy example of modern French architecture; the New Opera House (186375) by Garnier, the most sumptuous theatre in existence; and a large number of decorative and

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the instrumentality of Gottfried Semper. German architecture has been very successful with theatres, in which the auditorium was expressed by an external curvilinear plan, as in the Dresden Theatre (1841) by Semper. Among rectangular theatrical structures are the Opera House and new Burgtheater at Vienna. It has also succeeded with academic buildings like Schinkel's Bauschule at Berlin, and Semper's Polytechnic School at Zurich; in university and educational buildings, and in the new Parliament House at Berlin by Wallot. Nowhere has building been more extensive than at Vienna, in which the principal buildings are grouped about one magnificent avenue, the Ringstrasse. L'art nouveau, which in its application to architecture signifies a complete negation of all traditional types, has lately become popular in Germany and Austria; but with certain exceptions like the Rathaus at Leipzig, it has been more successful in private residences than in more ambitious efforts.

In England also the general tendency has been to turn away from the Gothic and adopt Renaissance forms, freely treated;

municipal works including great street improvements in Paris. The new Hôtel de Ville by Ballu and de Perthes, resembling the structure destroyed by the Commune, the Sorbonne by Nenot and the church of Sacré Cœur at Montmartre by Abadie are among the achievements of the Third Republic.

In Germany there has been a strong tendency towards the Renaissance, especially through

as in the Albert Memorial Hall (1863) by Scott; the Imperial Institute by Collcutt; the Municipal Buildings of Cardiff; and the Victoria and Albert Museums at South Kensington by Webb. In ecclesiastical architecture the most important achievements are the strange and imposing Westminster Catholic Cathedral (E. F. Bentley) and the recent Liverpool Cathedral in English 13th century Gothic by Bodley and Scott.

Architecture

THE UNITED STATES.-In the period following the first settlement there was little architecture of any special significance. The so-called Colonial style (1735-75) was based upon contemporary English practice, with such modífications of detail as the general employment of wood required. The stately brick manor houses of Maryland and Virginia often had elaborate interiors; while New England residences, built almost entirely of wood, were also admirable in tasteful interior finish. The church architecture of the period exemplified in such buildings as Old South Church in Boston, St. Paul's in New York, and Christ Church in Philadel phia, was modelled after the buildings by Wren and Gibbs. Public buildings were generally modest and inexpensive, the best known examples being Faneuil Hall in Boston and Independence Hall in Philadelphia. To the latter part of the same period belong most of the monuments of Spanish rule in the United States; such as the Cathedrals of St. Augustine, Tucson, and other towns, and the Spanish missions of California, built in a phase of the Churrigueresque.

The Early Republican period was characterized by a series of works of a more monumental character, to meet the requirements of the new state and national life; such as the Capitol at Washington (1793-1830) by Thornton, Hallet and Latrobe, the State House at Boston (1795) by Bulfinch, the New York City Hall (1803-12) by McComb and Mangin, and the University of Virginia (1817) by Thomas Jefferson. Before the close of the period the influence of the classic revivals of Europe began to appear. It left its strongest impression upon Federal architecture, but also influenced domestic architecture. Among its buildings are the White House (1792) by Hcban, and other public buildings at Washington; the old custom houses of New York and Boston, and Girard College at Philadelphia.

The absorption of the people by political activity and industrial progress during the War Period (1850-76) resulted in a decline of taste, as may be seen in numerous state capitals and in such buildings as the huge City Hall of Philadelphia. Excepting the dome of the capitol at Washington by Walters, the Federal buildings were unimportant. The most notable achievements were in church architecture in the style of the Gothic revival, as in St. Patrick's Cathedral in New York by Renwick and Trinity Church, New York (1843) by Upjohn.

Recent Architecture.-A number

Architecture

of causes contributed to the artistic awakening of the years following 1870, among which was the increasing practice of studying abroad. Two pupils of the Ecole des Beaux Arts, R. M. Hunt and H. H. Richardson, exercised a great influence. In such buildings as Trinity Church, Boston, and the county buildings at Pittsburg the latter used the Romanesque style in a highly individual manner, but although his style was much imitated, it proved ineffective in other hands. The tendency at the present time is rather towards the Renaissance. A great innovation in the construction of commercial buildings was caused by the increased use of the elevator and the resulting introduction of the steel cage system of construction, which admits of an indefinite number of stories. The exterior thus became a mere shell. The Western School with centre at Chicago has attained bolder and more original results; but the buildings in New York and the East are more pleasing to the eye. Among striking commercial buildings are the Auditorium in Chicago; the Majestic Building in Detroit; the new Flatiron, Times and Trinity buildings in New York, to say nothing of the colossal and luxurious hotels in New York, Philadelphia and other cities. Equally original and characteristic is the present domestic architecture, especially in the wooden residences preferred in country places and planned with a view to the practical needs of the inmates; but even in stone and brick structures, it rarely attains the dignity of a technical style. The palaces of our International Exhibitions, especially those of Chicago in 1803, greatly promoted the use of classical elements in American architecture. In late years it has become the policy of the most important educational institutions to secure imposing buildings; as, for example, the Boston Public Library, the Congressional Library at Washington and the New York Library now in process of construction; the national military and naval academies at West Point and Annapolis, and the new buildings of Columbia University and the University of California. In such structures as the new Custom House at New York, the improvement in Federal buildings is also noteworthy. Although no uniformity of style pervades American architecture and the present efforts are all more or less eclectic, there is a constant improvement, and the outlook for the future seems indeed bright.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.-A convenient and scholarly handbook for students is Hamlin's Text Book of the History of Architecture (New

Arcot

the strategi came to monopolize the state business. On the two lower classes being made eligible for the archonship, the office became a paid one. See Aristotle's Constitution of Athens.

Archpriest, a church dignitary whose office was formerly given in each diocese to the priest senior by ordination. He was the helper of the bishop in his spiritual functions, as the archdeacon was in his temporal functions. Along with the parish priests he formed the rural chapter corresponding to the cathedral chapter of the bishop and canons. In the Roman Catholic Church the title has fallen into desuetude. In England, from 1598 to 1623, archpriests were appointed by papal commission to take charge of the secular clergy. They were vigorously opposed by the English clergy, who finally obtained their supersession in favor of William Bishop (1623) as bishop's vicargeneral.

Archytas OF TARENTUM (c. 400 B.C.), Greek general and mathematician, and a friend of Plato, was the first to apply geometry to mechanics. He is known only by references in ancient writers.

Arcis-sur-Aube, tn., dep. Aube, France, 17 m. N. of Troyes; birthplace of Danton, and scene of the battle of March 20-21, 1814. Napoleon was forced to retreat, leaving the route to Paris open to the allics. Pop. (1901) 2,774.

Arcole, vil., Italy, prov. Verona, 15 m. S.E. of Verona, in a marshy situation. It was the scene on Nov. 15, 16, and 17, 1796, of stubborn battles between the Austrians (about 40,000, under Alvinczy) and Napoleon, in which the latter finally gained a victory which prevented the relief of Mantua. Pop. (1901) c. 1,250.

Arçon, JEAN CLAUDE ELÉONORE LE MICHAUD D' (1733-1800), French general and engineer, born at Pontarlier; the inventor of the floating batteries used in the attack upon Gibraltar in 1782. He participated in the French revo fution, and wrote military books, such as Considérations sur les Fortifications (1795).

Arcos de la Frontera, tn., prov. Cadiz, Spain, 19 m. N.E. of Jerez. Finely situated on rocky elevation. Pop. (1900) 13,926.

Arcot, tn., N. Arcot dist., Madras, 65 m. w.s.w. of Madras; was formerly the capital of the Carnatic. The fort, now in ruins, was taken by Clive in 1751; by the French in 1758, from whom it was recaptured in 1760. During the Mysore War, Arcot was taken by Haidar Ali in 1780, and finally passed into the hands of the British in 1801. Pop. (1901) 10,734.

Arcot, NORTH (area, 7,616 sq. m.), a district of the Madras Presidency; formed part of the