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Arctic Club

kingdoms of Carnatic and Mysore, and at the termination of the Mysore War was ceded to the British. Paddy, ragí, and cholam are grown, and there are manufactures of carpets, brass work, and carved wood. Pop. (1901) 2,207,712. SOUTH ARCOT (area 5,217 sq. m.) has similar productions. Fort St. David, 2 m. to the N., was taken by the French in 1758, and abandoned two years later. Pop. (1901) 2,349,894.

Arctic Club. A society in the U. S. for the encouragement of Arctic investigations, founded in 1894. It has a membership of 200.

Arctic Exploration. The Arctic Sea was first entered by Other, a Norwegian, who sailed to the N. coast of Russia, and made a report of his voyage to King Alfred; and about 1001 the w. coast of Greenland was colonized by the Icelander, Erik the Red. No further progress, however, was made in Arctic discovery until 1553, when Sir Hugh Willoughby sighted Novaya Zemlya. Three years later the Kara Str. and Kolguyef I. were discovered by Stephen Burrough, and in 1580 the Yugor Str. by Pet and Jackman. Dutchmen soon joined in the quest. William Barents (Barendszoon or Barendsz) made three voyages to the north, and in 1596, having discovered Bear I. and Spitzbergen, rounded the N. extremity of Novaya Zemlya, and wintered on the E. coast. This was the first time Europeans passed a winter in the Arctic regions. Novaya Zemlya was first circumnavigated by Elling Carlsen in 1871. Henry Hudson, in 1607, sailed up the E. coast of Greenland to Cape Hold with Hope, and crossing over to Spitzbergen, named Hakluyt Headland. On his return he discovered Hudson Tutches, afterward named Jan Mayen after a Dutch skipper. In another voyage, in 1610, the same_navigator discovered Hudson Strait. Thomas Edge, in the employment of the Muscovy Company, besides other discoveries, sighted and named Wyche's Land (1617), renamed by Von Heuglin in 1870, after the king of Würtemberg, König Karl Land. In 1707 the Dutch captain Giles, or Gillis, sighted land 25 m. E. of N.E. Spitzbergen, which has been sought for in vain by later navigators. Parry, in 1827, travelling partly over ice-floes, reached the lat. of 82° 45′ to the N. of Spitzbergen-the farthest north until the Nares expedition. Nordenskjöld made several voyages to this group, on one of which (1868) he carried his vessel, the Sofia, to 81° 42′. Parry's farthest north was on the European side. Captain Carlsen (1863) was the first to sail round Spitz

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bergen. In 1873 Payer and Weyprecht discovered Franz Josef Land. On the chart of the Van Keulens the Land van Edam and Land van Lambert are marked on the E. coast of Greenland in lat. 78° 10' and 78° 20' respectively. These points were seen in 1655 and 1670. A Dutch skipper, Gael Hamke, discovered the bay which bears his name in 1654. In 1822 Dr. Scoresby surveyed the E. coast of Greenland from Gael Hamke Bay down to lat. 69°; and in 1823 Clavering and Sabine, in the Griper, made pendulum observations at Pendulum I., and advanced north to the Haystack. The S. extremity of the E. coast was visited by Captain Graah in 1829, and explored up to 65° 18′ N. More important was the first German expedition of 1869-70 in the ships Germania and Hansa, under the command of Captain Koldewey. Accompanied by Lieut. Payer, Captain Koldewey reached with sledges the N. shore of Dove Bay, N. of Cape Bismarck, in lat. 770 N.; while the crew of the Hansa, which was crushed by the ice, made a remarkable journey on an ice-floe to the s. extremity of Greenland. As early as 1576 Frobisher made a voyage to the s. extremity of Greenland and the opposite American coast, and in 1585 the strait forming the entrance to the Arctic regions w. of Greenland was discovered by John Davis. In 1616 Baffin and Bylot passed through Davis Strait, and sailed up the North Water to Smith Sound, discovering on the homeward voyage Jones Sound and Lancaster Sound, which were closed by ice. Except for the voyage in 1631 of Luke Fox, who sailed up Fox Channel to Peregrine Point, in lat. 66° 47' N., nothing further was learned of these regions for about two hundred years, and Baffin's discoveries were almost forgotten. At length the interest in a North-West Passage having revived, Commander John Ross was sent out in 1818 with the Isabella and Alexander. He confirmed the accuracy of Baffin's observations, and named Melville Bay, Capes Isabella and Alexander, and other points. The following year Lieut. Parry, commanding the Hecla and Griper, sailed through Lancaster Sound, and laid down on his chart the islands of N. Devon, Cornwall, Bathurst, and Melville on the N., and N. Somerset, Cape Walker (Russell I.), and Banks Land on the s.; and in 1821-3, with the Fury and Hecla he passed up Fox Channel and traced the Fury and Hecla Straits to Regent Inlet. Sir John Ross made another voyage in 1829-33 in the Victory, a vessel equipped by Felix Booth, a wealthy distiller, and passed up Regent Inlet to the

Arctic Exploration

Gulf of Boothia; while his nephew, James C. Ross, traversed the s. part of Boothia and the strait named after him, and discovered the north magnetic pole, then situated on King William Land, in lat. 70° 5' N. and long. 96° 46' w. A few years earlier, in 1826, Dr. Richardson had passed through Dolphin and Union Straits, and sighted Wollaston Land, part of which was afterward named Victoria Land by Simpson of Hudson's Bay Company, who, with Dease, in 1838-9, passed through Dease Strait and the entrance of Simpson Strait; while Dr. John Rae, in 1845-7, explored the s. coast of the Gulf of Boothia from Fury_and Hecla Straits on the E. to Lord Mayor's Bay on the w., and proved Boothia to be a peninsula. The successful though ill-fated expedi tion of Sir John Franklin in search of a North-West Passage set sail from the Thames on May 20, 1845. With the Erebus and the Terror, under the command of Captains Fitzjames and Crozier, Franklin passed through Lancaster Sound, and, as was afterward ascertained, sailed up Wellington Channel to Penny Strait and down Crozier Channel, returning to Beechey I. in winter. Subsequently the vessels made their way to the N.W. coast of King William Land, where Franklin died in June, 1847. The survivors, under Captain Crozier, started in 1848 for the Great Fish River, and their remains were found along the route to Adelaide Peninsula. The expedition had, therefore, ascertained the existence of a sea passage from the Atlantic to the channels s. of Victoria and Wollaston Lands, leading to Bering Strait. Nothing having been heard of Sir John Franklin and his vessels, some forty expeditions were sent out between the years 1847 and 1857, during which many new discoveries were made. Of those entering the Arctic regions from the E. may be mentioned that of Lieut. De Haven, of the U.S. navy, in the Advance, equipped by Mr. Grinnell, who, sailing up Wellington Channel, named Grinnell Land, to the N.w. of N. Devon (1850-51); that of Captain Austin of the Resolute (1850-1), who, with Lieut. M'Clintock, surveyed the s. shores of the Parry Is.; the expedition of Sir E. Belcher, with the ships Assistance, Resolute, Pioneer, Intrepid, and North Star (1852-4), when the commander of the expedition surveyed the Belcher Channel, Lieut. Sherard Osborn the N. shores of the Parry Is., and Lieuts. M'Clintock and Mecham Prince Patrick I.; while, in 1857-9, Captain M'Clintock, in the Fox, sailed up Regent Inlet, and estab lished his winter quarters at Port Kennedy in Bellot Strait (discovered in 1851-2 by Captain Ken

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1. Sir John Ross. 2. Sir Robert M'Clure. 3. Sir James C. Ross. 4. Sir W. Parry. 5. Sir John Franklin. 6. Lieutenant Robert E. Peary, U. S. N. (from stereograph copyright, 1905, by Underwood and Underwood, N. Y.). 7. Fridtjof Nansen. 8. The Duke of the Abruzzi. 9. Professor Nordenskiöld.

Arctic Exploration

nedy and Lieut. Bellot of the French navy), whence sledge parties, under the command of Capt. Allen Young and Lieut. Hobson, set forth to examine the w. coast of N. Somerset and Boothia, the s. coast of Prince of Wales I., and the shores of King William Land. On the w. coast of the last-named island was found a paper recording the voyage of the ships Erebus and Terror, the death of Franklin, and the departure of the crews for the Great Fish River. Meanwhile, Dr. Kane led another Grinnell expedition, in 1853-5, up through Smith Sound to Kane Basin, whence Dr. Hayes explored the coast of Grinnell Land (N. of Ellesmere Land, not the Grinnell Land of De Haven) up to lat. 79° 45', and Wm. Morton the Humboldt glacier and Washington Land. In a second journey, 1860-1, Dr. Hayes reached Cape Lieber, lat. 81° 35'. Captain C. F. Hall, in 1871, carried his vessel, the Polaris, up to 82° 16' N. lat., and wintered in Polaris Bay, N. of Petermann Fjord. He was followed, in 1875-6, by the Nares expedition, with the ships Alert and Discovery. The Alert wintered off the coast of Grinnell Land, in lat. 82° 24'; the Discovery in Discovery Harbor, opposite Polaris Bay. A sledge party under Commander A. H. Markham pushed northward over the ice to lat. 83° 20' 26" N.; a second, under Lieut. Aldrich, explored the N. coast of Grant Land; and a third, under Lieut. Beaumont, reached the farther coast of Sherard Osborn Fjord. In 1881-4 Lieut. Greely, U. S. A., led an expedition up Kennedy Channel, and explored the interior of Grinnell Land westward to the Greely Fjord (1882). Lieut. Lockwood and Sergeant Brainerd of this expedition followed the Greenland coast beyond Sherard Osborn Fjord to Lockwood I., 83° 24' N. -the highest latitude reached by man until the Nansen expedition. Two vessels sent to relieve the expedition failed to reach it, and of the 23 men in the party, 17 died, mainly of starvation, at Cape Sabine. The survivors were rescued in 1884, by a U. S. expedition under Captain Schley.

Several exploring vessels have entered the Arctic seas by Bering Strait. Captain Cook reached Icy Cape in 1778; the greatest expedition by this route was that of the Investigator and Enterprise, under Captains M'Clure and Collinson (1850-4), which explored the w. coast of Wollaston Land and the coasts of Banks Land, while M'Clure and his crew made the Northwest Passage on the ice. Another important voyage was made through Bering Strait in 1879-81. Lieut. De Long of the

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U. S. navy set sail toward the pole in the Jeannette (Captain Allen's yacht Pandora), and having ascertained that Wrangel Land was only a small island, drifted with the ice past Jeannette and Henrietta Islands, and, his ship being crushed in the ice, endeavored to reach the river Lena. One party, under the command of Engineer Melville, reached Yakutsk. About the same time (1878-9) Baron Nordenskjöld made the Northeast Passage in the ship Vega.

During recent years a large number of expeditions have visited the Arctic regions. Commander R. E. Peary spent several seasons in Greenland and on the neighboring coast. In 1892, accompanied by Eivind Astrup, he crossed the N. of Greenland to Independence Bay, in lat. 81° 37' N.; and, in 1899, crossed Ellesmere Land, and connected his survey of the w. coast with that of Lieut. Lockwood. In 1900 he skirted the northern extremity of the archipelago above Greenland, and named Cape Morris Jesup (83° 39'), the most northern land then known. He also pushed on over the ice-pack to 83° 50'; and again, in 1902, reached lat. 84° 17' to the N. of Grant Land. In the summer of 1905 Peary again sailed northward in the specially built Roosevelt, and on April 21, 1906, reached the then 'farthest north," 87° 6', 174 nautical miles from the pole. The expedition found new fand N.W. of the N.W. part of Grant's Land. Nansen entered the ice with the Fram near the New Siberia Is. in 1893, drifted during two winters toward the pole, and with Johansen marched over the ice to lat. 86° 4' N., while the Fram reached lat. 85° 57′ to the N. of Spitzbergen. The Duke of the Abruzzi also visited Franz Josef Land, in the Stella Polare, and one of his party, Captain Cagni, advanced in 1900 to 86° 34′ N. Among the American explorers in this region are Walter Wellman (1898-99) and Evelyn B. Baldwin (1901-02). Anthony Fiala (1903-05) lost his ship, but discovered some small islands and headlands. In 1906 and 1907 Wellman planned voyages from Spitzbergen to the pole in a specially designed dirigible balloon or airship, the America, but was unable to proceed because of unfavorable weather. Captain Sverdrup (1898-1902) visited Jones Sound, and determined the western side of King Oscar Land, Ellesmere Land, and Grinnell Land, and the connection between North Devon I. and the Grinnell Land immediately to the N.w. of it, as well as discovered the large islands Ringnes Is. and Axel Heiberg I. to the w. of Grinnell Land,

Arctic Exploration

the explorations of the sledging parties extending to 106° w. long. and 81° 40′ N. lat. In 1905 an expedition under the Duke of Orleans surveyed the E. coast of Greenland from Cape Bismarck to lat. 78°16' N. Roald Amundsen, a Dane, started in 1903 to relocate the magnetic pole, which he accomplished in the summer of 1904, and brought his vessel to Alaska in 1905-the first vessel to make the Northwest Passage. Mylius Erichsen, leader of a Danish Greenland expedition, lost his life on the N.E. coast in 1908.

Discovery of the North Pole.On Sept. 6, 1909, the memorable announcement was made to the world by Commander Peary, who had just reached Indian Harbor, that five months previously (on April 6) he had 'nailed the Stars and Stripes to the Pole.' The Peary expedition, consisting of the Commander, Dr. Goodsell, Profs. Donald McMillan and Ross G. Marvin, Mr. George Borup, Matthew Henson, a colored attendant, and Capt. R. A. Bartlett and crew of the steamer Roosevelt, had left the U. S. in the summer of 1908. From Etah, the northernmost settlement in Greenland, it proceeded to Cape Sheridan, where quarters were erected, and the long winter night partly spent in transporting stores to Cape Columbia, on the northern shore of Grant Land. From this point, on Feb. 28, 1909, the northward journey to the Pole was resumed. The expedition consisted of the seven men named above, besides seventeen Eskimos, with numerous sledges and dogs. On March 14, on account of a week's delay caused by open water, only 84° 29′ had been reached, and Dr. Goodsell, in command of the first supporting party, turned back. The next day one of McMillan's feet was found to be frost-bitten, and he was also forced to return. On March 20, at 85° 23', Borup, in charge of the second supporting party, was sent back. Five days of rapid progress followed, which brought the expedition to latitude 86° 38', a point beyond the records of Nansen and Cagni. Here Marvin started back, but when only forty miles from Cape Columbia the treacherous ice gave way and he was drowned. Strong winds and bad ice proved heavy handicaps to the party until the 88th parallel was reached, where Capt. Bartlett turned southward. The expedition was now reduced to Peary himself. Henson, and four Eskimos, with supplies for forty days, and on April 1 'the final dash began. On they pressed, stopping to sleep for only a few hours at a time. Good ice was found and the temperature rose to -15°. Thirty-two miles were

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LIFE IN THE ARCTIC REGIONS.

A, Greenland whale. B, Long-tailed skua. C, Guillemot. D. Great northern diver. E, Greenland falcon. F, Iceland gull. G, Great snowy owl. H. Stoat. I, Polar bear. J, Porpoise. K, Harp or Greenland seal. L. Narwhal. M, Arctic fox. N, Caribou. O, Ptarmigan. P. Arctic or mountain hare. Q, Walrus. R, Musk ox. S, Little auk. T, Larch. U, Dwarf birch. V. Zceland moss W. Androsace villosa. X. Thlaspi alpinum. Y. Saxifraga oppositifolia. Z, Protococcus hæmatococcus.

Arctic Life

made in twelve hours-an observation recorded the latitude as 89°57'-and then the long-coveted goal was won! Flags were hoisted and the Pole was claimed for the United States (Apr. 6). No evidence of land was seen through the telescope in any direction, though Peary went on ten miles beyond the camp and eight miles to the right of it. Thirty hours were spent around the Pole in making observations, taking photographs, etc. During this time the temperature ranged between 12° and 33° F., though much lower temperatures had been experienced on the march. The return journey was quickly made, unusually favorable conditions being encountered, and on April 23 Cape Columbia was reached, whence the expedition proceeded to the U. S. by easy stages. (See ARCTIC OCEAN; PEARY, R. E.)

Bibliography: Nourse's American Explorations in the Ice Zones (1884), Greely's Handbook of Arctic Discoveries (1896). Peáry in The North Pole (in preparation) recounts his memorable discovery, while his Nearest the Pole (1907) describes a previous expedition. Other explorers have written fully of their expeditions.

Arctic Life. The Arctic zone forms a well-defined geographical region, characterized by many peculiar animals and plants. In certain parts-as, for example, in the interior of Greenland-this region is singularly barren and devoid of life; but elsewhere, as in the tundras of Asia, there is, during the brief but hot summer, an exceedingly luxuriant growth of plant life, with a corresponding abundance of insects, birds, and herbivorous and carnivorous mammals. There are relatively few kinds of herbivorous mammals; though, as in the case of lemmings and reindeer, those present may be numerous in individuals. Many Arctic animals depend directly or indirectly upon the marine organisms with which the Arctic Ocean teems. This is true of man, no less than of such characteristic Arctic forms as fur seals, walruses, and polar bears; of entirely aquatic forms like the whales; and of the flocks of birds which are temporary inhabitants of the region.

Among the land plants the mosses and lichens deserve special mention, on account of their abundance and importance as food for the reindeer, musk ox, and lemming. Among mosses, the bog moss (Sphagnum), as well as species of Hypnum and Polytrichum, are common, and cover vast tracts. The so-called 'Iceland moss' (Cetraria islandica) is an important part of the rein

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deer's diet, and is also exceedingly abundant. In addition, there are many different kinds of flowering plants. Among such may be mentioned the pink Andromeda polifolia, the cloudberry (Rubus chamamorus), various rushes and sedges, and saxifrages. Within the Arctic region proper trees do not occur, the Arctic species of willow and birch being low-growing plants-herbs rather than shrubs. The majority of the plants display what are known as xerophytic characters (cf. article on the SEASHORE), and many possess rounded or centric leaves, which have not an upper and lower surface, but stand erect, and are structurally arranged so that light falling on any part of the surface can be utilized in assimilation. This is an adaptation to the peculiar conditions of illumination, the light falling on every side of the plant in turn. Again, the continuity of the light during the brief period of summer checks growth, so that the plants are dwarfed and tufted in habit. Further, although insects are numerically abundant, they are largely short-tongued forms, such as flies (Diptera), and the flowers are therefore mostly short-tubed, with honey near the surface; very many are self-fertilized, and where self-fertilization is impossible, the power of asexual reproduction is marked.

The plant life of the sea would not appear to be of great direct importance. Indirectly, the algæ, both large and small, are of great importance, as they furnish ultimately the food upon which the numerous crustaceans, molluscs, fish, and other marine organisms depend. The molluscs are of interest, among which may be mentioned Pecten islandicus, Astarte borealis, Turritella polaris, Leda rostrata, while Mya truncata and Saxicava arctica, which are very abundant, constitute the chief food of the walrus; the pteropods, Clio borealis and Limacina arctica, form the staple diet of the whalebone whale, and the cuttles feed many of the toothed whales. The Crustacea also deserve passing mention. Crabs are few, but shrimps, schizopods, and amphipods are abundant; in the case of the illfated Greely expedition they formed the only food obtainable by the survivors. In certain parts of the Arctic region fish are extraordinarily plentiful, and reach a large size. They form a very important part of the diet of many Arctic mammals.

Of the terrestrial animals, the birds in certain regions are very abundant during the summer months. The valuable eider duck, cormorants, mergansers, oyster

Arctic Ocean

catchers, puffins, guillemots, terns, auks, razor-bills, and many others, literally darken the air in the vicinity of their breeding haunts. In the tundras such land birds as the ptarmigan, the golden plover, and the phalarope abound."

The mammals themselves show many striking peculiarities. As the conditions throughout the region are very uniform, a dominant species is likely to be widely distributed. This is true of the reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) and the elk (Alces machlis); the musk ox (Ovibos moschatus), now confined to the northern parts of the W. hemisphere, is an apparent exception, but it occurs as a fossil in Europe and Asia, and was undoubtedly once widely distributed. Among other interesting forms should be mentioned the fossil mammoth (Elephas primigenius), which constitutes a very important source of fossil ivory; the lemming, important on account of its fecundity; the Arctic fox, which, like the marten, ermine, sable, and others, exhibits a seasonal change of color, and forms a valuable fur animal. Of even greater importance are the aquatic or semi-aquatic mammals, such as the true fur seal (Otaria), whose breeding habits are of great interest, the whalebone whale (Balana mysticetus), the bottlenose (Hyperoodon rostratus). Of less commercial but equal zoological importance are the hooded seal (Cystophora cristata), the polar bear, the narwhal (Monodon monoceros), the white whale (Delphinapterus leucas), the Greenland seal (Phoca grænlandica), the walrus (Odobanus rosmarus and Odobanus obesus), and others. F. Nansen's First Crossing of Greenland (1890); A. E. Nordenskjöld's Voyage of the "Vega' (trans. by Leslie, 1881); R. Collett's Bird Life in Arctic Norway (trans. by Cocks, 1894); Willis's Flowering Plants and Ferns (1897); Flower and Lydekker's Mammals, Living and Extinct (1891).

See

Arctic Ocean, one of the great water divisions of the globe, is for the most part enclosed between the N. coasts of Europe, Asia, and N. America. The only wide connection it has with the Atlantic runs over the ridge which links Iceland with Scotland by way of the Faroes, Shetlands, and Orkneys; but it has three other narrower openings-viz. Denmark Str., between Greenland and Iceland; Davis Strait (with Baffin Bay, Smith Sound. Lancaster Sound, and Jones Sound), between Greenland and British N. America (both of these connecting it with the Atlantic); and Bering Strait, which unites it with the Pacific. The Pole was reached by

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