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and especially Great Britain. Of the regular army of Great Britain considerably less than one-half is serving in what are called the home stations of England, Scotland, and Ireland; and an army of 75,000 regular European troops and about 216,000 native troops, officered principally by Europeans, is maintained in India alone, to say nothing of other contingents in various parts of the world. France and Germany keep conIstantly with the colors in time of peace over 600,000 men, while Russia has nearly twice as many.

The cost of keeping up these armies may be understood from the figures in a few cases. Great

Britain spent over $135,000,000 in the maintenance of her regular army last year (1909) not including India; France, $148,000,000; Germany, $180,000,000; Russia nearly $200,000,000, of which less than one-fourth was for payment of troops. The table on preceding page shows the strength of the world's armies in 1909, as far as the figures are available, as well as the proportions of various arms in the composition of an army at different times. See ARMY IN THE FIELD; Heitman's Historical Register and Dictionary of the U. S. Army; Jerram's Armies of the World (1900); Armies of To-day (various writers, 1893); Köpper's Armies of Europe (trans. by Count Gleichen, 1897).

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Army OF THE UNITED STATES. -When the first Continental Congress assembled on May 10, 1775, the British army was besieged in Boston by troops from the four New England colonies, each of which, acting for the common defence, but recognizing no mon authority except that of patriotism, had voluntarily sent their organized militia companies. Each colony had different laws for the government of its troops, and each contingent came and remained under the orders of its own officers, obeying no general commanding officer, except by courtesy. It will be seen that this was little better than a mixed multitude' and hardly deserved the name of 'army.' The various companies composing it had been organized in the several colonies for defence against the Indians, and for service in the colonial wars; some of them, for instance those of New Hampshire and later arrivals from New York, had been organized and trained at the instance of the Royal Governors themselves. The Continental Congress 'adopted' this 'army' by a resolution on June 15, 1775, which also created the office of General and Commanderin-chief, to command all the forces raised or to be raised in

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the defence of American liberty, and, upon the suggestion of the Massachusetts delegates, Colonel George Washington, of Virginia, was appointed to the office. Four major-generals and eight brigadier-generals were nominated at the same time. Very few of the troops thus brought under Federal control had ever seen service in civilized warfare, and the task of organization was indeed Herculean. Congress appointed a board or committee the next day (June 16, 1775) to draw up a commission and instructions for General Washington. This committee, consisting of John Adams, Richard Henry Lee and Edward Rutledge, directed him to enforce discipline, to retain in the service the men now enlisted, and to increase the army,' in his discretion, to 'a number not exceeding twice that of the enemy. The instructions were concluded by the caution to make 'it your special care, in discharge of the great trust committed unto you, that the liberties of America receive no detriment.' The next year (1776) Congress laid the foundations of the present War Department, by appointing a 'Board of War and Ordnance,' consisting of five members of Congress and a paid secretary (Richard Peters), which board was to take charge of all military stores, superintend the raising, equipping, and despatching of the land forces, keep a register of the officers, and so forth.' The next year the personnel of this board was changed so as to be composed of persons not members of Congress; and in 1781 the necessity for centralizing control was recognized by the abolition of the board and the appointment of General Lincoln 'Secretary at War.'

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In its original resolution 'adopting the army, Congress, anticipating a reconciliation with the king at an early date, authorized the enlistment of the soldiers only until the end of the year, instead of for the war, thereby inaugurating a grave mistake, which immeasurably increased the difficulties of the commander-inchief, and from which the army has suffered more or less in all subsequent wars.

In the organization of the first army, Washington relied, from necessity, very greatly upon the advice of foreign officers who had joined the army for various reasons, many of them being already distinguished officers in their own countries, actuated only by the highest motives, among whom the names of Lafayette, De Kalb, Kosciuszko, Steuben, Pulaski, Duportail and many others might be mentioned. Steuben, a former aide-de-camp to Frederick the

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Great, became later the first Inspector general U. S. Army, was largely responsible for the training of the army, and introduced the principles of discipline, drill, and accountability for public property, which have remained practically unchanged to the present day. Duportail became the first Chief of Engineers.

At the close of the Revolution the seasoned veterans of that great struggle, educated and trained through many hardships in the school of experience, were allowed by Congress to return to their civic avocations, and there was no U. S. army, or practically none, between 1784 and 1789. In the face of the struggle for in dependence, the Federation was strong enough to hold the colonies together and keep up the army. This danger being passed, the recommendations of Congress fell upon deaf ears, as was to be expected. Washington strongly urged Congress, at the close of the war, to make provision for a permanent and well-equipped army, but this body, like all succeeding congresses, thought that 'standing armies in time of peace are inconsistent with the principles of republican government, and dangerous to the liberties of a free people,' and that a sufficient defence would be found in the provisions of the plan of confederation which directed that 'every state shall always keep up a wellregulated and disciplined militia.' In pursuance of this policy, Congress directed, by resolution of May 26, 1784, that all the troops then in the service of the U. S. be discharged, 'except twenty-five privates to guard the stores at Fort Pitt, and fifty-five to guard the stores at West Point and other magazines, with a proportionate number of officers,' all below the rank of major. This arrangement proved unsatisfactory at once, and Congress was compelled to rescind this resolution within the next ten days, that is on June 3, 1784, and then resolved that 'as it appears absolutely necessary to have 700 non-commissioned officers and men, properly officered, it is recommended to the following states, as most convenient to the posts shortly to be vacated by the British, to furnish from their militia: Connecticut, 165; New York, 165; New Jersey, 110; Pennsylvania, 260, to serve 12 months, unless sooner discharged.' This small force, never recruited to the full strength of 700 men, was organized into a regiment of infantry, which was continued in service from year to year, and to which was added, in 1786, a battalion of four companies of artillery. This army of about 700 men was slightly changed as to organization by acts of Congress,

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which, on Sept. 29, 1789, declared that it was to be considered and 'recognized to be the establishment for the troops in the service of the United States.' Up to this time all commissions of officers had been issued by the respective states, but all officers retained in the service were now, for the first time, commissioned by the general government. Lt. Col. Josiah Harmar, of the Pennsylvania contingent, who had earned the brevet rank of brigadier-general during the war, and who had been the senior officer, became now the first commanderin-chief of the regular army of the United States, of which this was the beginning.

Since this time the army has undergone many changes, and has been engaged in services of the most varied nature, in widely separated parts of the globe; 'now holding back the Indians from border settlements, exploring unknown wilds and planting the flag for the honor and glory of the young nation; protecting the hardy settler and the advanceguard of science; standing between the peace-loving citizen and the murderous mob; and in five wars forming the backbone of the great forces called out to meet emergencies.' The Board of War and Ordnance gave early attention to the organization of a general staff, and Washington, upon assuming command in 1775, appointed Gates as Adjutant - General. Mifflin, Quartermaster-General, and Trumbull, as CommissaryGeneral, who were each provided with assistants from time to time as necessity demanded. Many officers were thus detailed during the war to perform various staff duties, but most of the permanent staff departments were not organized until many years later, as may be seen below.

The Adjutant-General's Department was first established on March 3, 1813. After the practical disbandment of the army in 1783 there was no regular adjutant-general until March 3, 1791. From this date until 1821, the law provided for an adjutant and inspector-general' who performed the duties of both offices, which dual arrangement was abolished in the latter year, and the Adjutant-General's Department was reduced to one officer. 1838 the President was authorized to appoint as many assistants as were needed, not to exceed six. The organization of the department was changed from time to time, and in 1904 it was temporarily replaced by the Military Secretary's Department. The old title was resumed in 1907. The Inspector-General's Department was organized by the act of March 3, 1813, in connection with the

In

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Adjutant-General's Department, with a personnel of eight officers of the former and sixteen of the latter. The first officer to bear the title of inspector-general was Col. Mottin de la Balme, a French cavalry offi cer, who was appointed by Congress on July 8, 1777, as Inspector-General of Cavalry. On Aug. 11 of the same year Major-General P. C. J. B. T. du Coudray was appointed Inspector-General of Ordnance and Military Stores. But the office of inspector-general, properly so-called, created on Dec. 13, 1777, Major General Thomas Conway being the first incumbent. To MajorGeneral Baron F. W. von Steuben, the next recipient of the honor, the U. S. army still recognizes its debt of gratitude. The office was discontinued in 1800 and re-established in 1813, the date of the permanent department, the duties being performed, in the interim, by line officers detailed for the purpose.

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The office of Judge AdvocateGeneral was created in 1775, and William Tudor, a law pupil of John Adams, was appointed to the place. The office lapsed in 1802, when the reorganization act limited the line of the army to three regiments and made no provision for a judge advocate general. It was again created in 1812 and discontinued in 1821, to reappear only during the Mexican War in 1849, when the President was authorized to appoint a Judge Advocate of the Army. In 1864 the Bureau of Military Justice was created, which, by the act of July 5, 1884, was consolidated with the Corps of Judge Advocates to form the present Judge Advocate-General's Department.

The Quartermaster's Department begins to appear in legislative acts on June 16, 1775, when Congress resolved 'that there be one Quartermaster-General for the Grand Army, and one deputy under him for the separate army,' and two years later adopted a code of regulations for him and his assistants. The force of the department was increased in 1780 to one quartermaster-general and one assistant, to be appointed by Congress; and one deputy for each army, to be appointed by the quartermastergeneral. The regulations were also revised at this time. The 'Department of Quartermaster-General' was discontinued in 1785, there being a quartermaster only, until the organization of the present department by act of Congress, March 28, 1812.

The Subsistence Department dates from the time when a Commissary-General of Stores and Provisions was established by act of the Continental Congress

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on June 16, 1775, which office was supplanted two years late: by a new divided system, one bureau being for purchases, the other for issues, each headed by a commissary-general, the former of whom, in order to be under the eye of Congress, was required to have his office at the place where the Congress met. The office of commissary-general, as at present constituted, dates from April 14, 1818.

The Medical Department, or, as it was originally styled, a hospital department, was created by Congress on July 27, 1775, with a director-general and chief physician' in charge. The Army Medical Committee of Congress submitted a scheme for a medical department based on that of the British service, which was adopted April 7, 1777, upon the recommendation of Gen. Washington, who wrote that he 'presumed' the number of officers asked for were necessary, because it had been found to be so 'in the British hospitals. After the close of the Revolutionary War, no provision other than that of assigning medical officers to each regiment was thought to be necessary for the few short-term troops retained in the service. In 1802 the reorganization act provided for 'two surgeons and twenty-five mates'; in 1808, the limit was removed, and the number was left to the discretion of the President. A chief of the department was first authorized in 1813 under the title of physician and surgeon-general'; the title of surgeon-general was made a part of the permanent medical department upon the reorganization in 1218.

The Pay Department was established by the Continental Congress, in an act of June 16, 1775, which provided for a separate paymastergeneral for the army, with one deputy under him. Upon the disbandment in 1783, PaymasterGeneral Pierce was retained in the service to settle his own and the army's accounts under the title of Commissioner of Army Accounts. When Gen. Pierce died, in 1788,

a

new commissioner of army accounts was appointed, who also administered the affairs of the paymaster's office until the appointment of a paymaster of the army in 1792. The present Pay Department was organized in

1816.

Although engineer officers were appointed with the revolutionary armies from the beginning, the organization of what has become the present Corps of Engineers dates only from March 11, 1779, with the usual lapse between the disbandment in 1783 and the permanent establishment in 1802. In 1813, eight topographical engineers and eight assistants were author

Army

ized, this branch being established as a separate bureau in 1831, and an independent corps in 1838. It was consolidated with the present Corps of Engineers in 1863. Twenty-four officers have been at the head of the department, with various grades and titles, the last twelve being brigadier-generals and chief of engineers.

One of the greatest difficulties with which the revolutionary army had to contend was the procurement of ammunition and other military stores. To encourage importation of this class of articles, the Continental Congress was reluctantly forced to grant free permission to export produce of all kinds in any vessel which imported munitions of war. A Committee of Artillery Stores was appointed by Congress on July 16, 1776, but the business of procuring arms and supplies was carried on principally by a secret committee of the Board of War.

The establishment of the present Ordnance Department dates from the act of May 14, 1812, but it was abolished and merged in the artillery in 1821, a supernumerary captain being assigned to each regiment of artillery as ordnance officer. The department was reorganized on an independent footing in 1832. Twentytwo officers have been at the head of the department under various titles since Aug. 7, 1775, the last seven (since 1861) as brigadiergeneral and chief of ordnance.

The Signal Corps dates from March 3, 1863, and originated from the investigation of Major A. J. Myer, an assistant surgeon, into the sign language of the Indians. He submitted a scheme for communicating by signs to a board of officers appointed for the purpose in 1858. In 1860 the first signal officer' was authorized for the army, he to have the rank and pay of major. Major Myer was the first incumbent, serving from 1860 to 1863; and as colonel to 1864; and again when the title and grade was changed to 'brigadier-general and chief signal officer' from 1866 to 1880.

The Record and Pension Office was created by Congress as a bureau of the War Department in 1892, the duties of which under the law were to take charge of the military and hospital records of all volunteer armies ever in the service of the United States, and all business pertaining thereto; and also to take charge of the publication of that immense work, the 'Official Records of the Rebellion' (q. v.). Very naturally, the archives of the office are voluminous, including, as they do, all military records of the revolutionary armies, and all subse quent volunteer armies; the records of the bureau of the Provost

382

Marshal-General, and of the bureau of Freedmen, Refugees, and Abandoned Lands; also the records of the various departments of the Confederate Government. In May, 1904, the separate organization of this department was temporarily ended by consolidation with that of the AdjutantGeneral, forming the Military Secretary's Department. In 1907 the Military Secretary's office resumed its old designation of Adjutant-General's Depart

ment.

The organization of the line of the United States Army has undergone even more changes than has that of the staff, the most important of which are briefly outlined below.

ARTILLERY.-After the Revolutionary War, but one small company of artillery troops was retained in the service, this being commanded by Capt. Doughty. Three other companies were formed from 1784 to 1786, in. which year the four companies were organized as a Battalion of Artillery, under command of Capt. Doughty, now promoted to be major. In 1792, when the army was organized into a legion, one company was assigned to each sub-legion. In 1798 the four companies were consolidated with the newly-authorized troops of the army, the whole forming the Corps of Artillerists and Engineers, which consisted of four battalions of four companies each. This marked the beginning of sea-coast defence in the United States. In 1799 a second organization of a similar character was authorized, the two being known as the first and second regiments, until they were combined in the reorganization and reduction of 1802, and called the 'Regiment of Artillerists,' consisting of five battalions of four companies each. The second and third regiments, raised for the War of 1812, were combined with the first in 1814 to form the 'Corps of Artillery,' consisting of twelve battalions of four companies each. This went out of existence in 1821. In the reorganization which took place in this year, the regiment of light artillery, which had been organized in 1808 with ten companies, was consolidated with the 'Corps of Artillery' to form the first, second, third and fourth regiments of artillery. In 1899 each regiment contained fourteen companies. A fifth regiment was organized in 1861, and a sixth and seventh in 1898, all regimental organizations merging into an Artillery Corps in 1901. In 1907 Congress passed a law reorganizing and enlarging the artillery. The field and coast artilleries were separated, the former being organized into six regiments,

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each of six batteries, and the latter into a corps containing one hundred and seventy companies. Forty-four of these are for submaríne defense.

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CAVALRY.-The first cavalry troops authorized by Congress were three regiments (1799) which were never organized. From 1792 to 1796 there were four troops of light dragoons, one to each sub legion. In the latter year two troops were disbanded, little later six new ones raised, the whole forming the 'Regiment of Light Dragoons,' in 1798. This regiment was disbanded on June 15, 1800, all troops being discharged except the original two, which were retained only until 1802, from which date there were no mounted troops until the organization in 1808 of a new regiment of light dragoons, consisting of eight troops. On the outbreak of war in 1812, a second regiment of the same kind was formed, both of which were merged in the Corps of Artillery in 1815. The first and second regiments of light dragoons, organized in 1833 and 1836, respectively, became the present First and Second Cavalry in 1861. A third dragoon regi

ment was in the service in 184748, being enlisted 'for and during the war with Mexico. The Regiment of Mounted Riflemen, formed in 1846, became the present Third Cavalry in 1861. The present Fourth and Fifth Cavalry date from 1855; the Sixth from 1861; the Seventh, Eighth, Ninth and Tenth, from 1866, the two latter being colored troops. The remaining five regiments were organized in 1901.

INFANTRY.-The main component of an army is, of course, the infantry. In the U. S. army regiments have always been designated simply by the serial num bers, when we have had more than one. The first regiment was enlisted to serve twelve months in 1784, and was continued in the service by various subsequent resolutions of Congress, until 1789, when it became the Regiment of Infantry in the U. S. service. The Second Regiment dates from 1791, and the Third and Fourth from 1796, when the legion was disbanded. original Fifth to Sixteenth Regiments (inclusive) date from July 16, 1798, all of which were dis charged on June 15, 1800, and have been several times reorgan ized since that date. This is also true of the regiments from 17 to 48, all of which were organized in 1812 to 1314, during the war. This is the greatest number of regiments of infantry ever be longing to the regular army at any one time, the number during the Civil War being forty-six.

The

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The last 5 existing regiments were reformed in 1901.

LEGION OF THE UNITED STATES. -The army was organized by the President, on the recommendation of Gen. Henry Knox, then Secretary of War, and in pursuance of a resolution of Congress, into the 'Legion of the United States,' the details being published in a general order dated Pittsburg, Pa., Sept. 4, 1792, and signed 'Anthony Wayne, Major-General and Commander-in-Chief of the Legion of the United States.' The order named the officers assigned to each of the four sub-legions into which the Legion was divided, the troops belonging thereto, and prescribed that each was to be commanded by a brigadiergeneral, which latter was subsequently modified to lieutenantcolonel, on account of the diffi

383

RANGERS. Seventeen companies of Rangers were enlisted for one year during the War of 1812; and six companies, mounted, in 1832-33.

RIFLEMEN.- A regiment of Riflemen, organized in 1808, continued in the service until 1821. Four additional regiments were enlisted for one year during the War of 1812; a single regiment in 1843-44; and a regiment of mounted Riflemen, formed in 1846, became the present Third Cavalry in 1861.

SEA FENCIBLES. Ten companies of 'Sea Fencibles' were formed in 1813, for service on land and water in the defence of the ports and harbors of the U. S., all being discharged in 1815.

Further historical details may be found in the following tables:various periods during its history, selected to illustrate the more important changes.

I. Strength of the U. S. Army at

II. Strength of the Army and casualties therein during the more important wars, including all troops engaged, both regular and volunteer.

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staff departments for the purposes of administration and supply. The President is the Constitu tional Commander-in-Chief of the U. S. Army, but would rarely take actual command of an army in the field. Since the establish ment of the general staff in 1903, there has been no commanding general of the army, and in case of war the President would designate officers to comma-1 what ever armies were sent into the field. In time of peace, therefore, he now has no second in command, but exercises his functions as commander-in-chief through the Secretary of War and the Chief of Staff. The Secretary of War is charged with carrying out the policy of the President in military affairs, his acts being the President's acts and his orders the President's orders, under the law. The Chief of Staff acts as military adviser to the Secretary of War, receives from him the orders of the President, to which he gives effect as prescribed by army regulations. The machinery by which he accomplishes this consists of the various administrative and supply departments of the staff and the commanding officers of the organizations of the line of the army. For accounts of the various departments, see historical sketch above and articles in other parts of this work under appropriate titles.

LINE.-The line of the U. S. army consists of thirty regiments of infantry, fifteen regiments of cavalry, one hundred and seventy companies of coast artillery, six regiments of field artillery, fourteen artillery bands, three battalions of engineers, twelve signal corps companies, twelve battalions of Philippine scouts, the Porto Rican regiment of infantry, and the military academy detachment and band.

Infantry. The administrative and tactical unit is identical, the regiment of twelve companies divided into three battalions, each commanded by a major.

Each regiment is divided into the 'field and staff' of 14 officers, and 8 non-commissioned officers, a band of 28 enlisted men and twelve companies, each having three officers and 70 enlisted men. Each major has command of a battalion of 4 companies, with a first lieutenant as adjutant, and a second lieutenant in the dual function of quartermaster and commissary. The three supernumerary captains are the regimental adjutant, quartermaster and commissary. The company is the smallest distinct unit of infantry, the interior economy of which is left in the hands of its captain. He looks after its welfare and training in every respect, appoints the cooks,

artificers, musicians, etc.,, and selects the non-commissioned officers, whose warrants are signed and issued by the regimental commander.

The different companies of a regiment were formerly stationed at widely separated posts, but the policy of the government is changing in this respect, and stations are becoming larger, so that entire regiments are often found at one post.

Cavalry. The regiment is the administrative unit, organized into three tactical units called squadrons of four troops each, with a major commanding. The peace strength of a regiment consists of 50 officers and 876 enlisted men, differing from an infantry regiment only in the designations of some of the minor non-commissioned officers.

Artillery (a) Sea coast. The administrative unit is the district (q.v.), and the tactical unit is the fire command. The act of 1907 provided for a variable company unit, the strength of a company depending upon the requirements of the service to which it may be assigned. (b) Field Artillery. By the act of 1907 the administrative unit is the regiment, composed of six batteries, further organized into two battalions of three batteries each. The field artillery was organized into three regiments of light artillery, two regiments of mountain artillery, and one regiment of horse artillery. The tactical unit of field, horse, siege, and mountain artillery is the battery. A field battery in the U. S. service has 4 officers and 120 enlisted men; a siege battery, 4 officers and 160 enlisted men; and a horse battery of 4 officers and 130 enlisted men. Of the six regiments of field artillery in the U. S. army three regiments are light,, two are mountain, and one is horse artillery.

Engineers.-There are in the U. S. service twelve companies of engineer troops forming three battalions, organized as infantry, as is the case in nearly all armies. The battalion is the administrative and tactical unit, each battalion having 13 officers and 312 enlisted men. There is also an engineer band of 28 enlisted men.

The privates of engineers are classified as first and second class, an equal number of each, and receive a higher grade of pay than in other branches of the service.

The strength of the army is fixed by executive order, and on Oct. 15, 1909, was as shown in the table here given, according to the annual report of the Secretary of War.

This does not include the Hos

884

pital Corps, which at the date of the above had a total strength of 3,500 enlisted men.

The U. S. army is kept up by voluntary enlistment, the period being for a term of three years, the British army also relying upon this method of recruitment (q.v.). The small arm for all branches of the service is the Springfield rifle, model 1903, for dismounted troops; mounted troops carry the carbine of same description, in addition to sabre or pistol, the latter a .38 or .45 calibre revolver. The regular peace establishment in the policy of the U. S. government, is always regarded as forming only a nucleus of the army on the outbreak of war, the main reliance being placed on volunteer armies composed of the national guard or militia of the various states, for details of which see articles under these several heads.

For administrative purposes the army is separated in time of peace according to stations into nine departments and one territorial division. The four geographical divisions into which the United States proper had been subdivided for military purposes were abolished by executive order in 1907. In the Philippines the division and departments were continued as previously organized. The military divisions of the United States proper were abolished in order to simplify administration by bringing general officers in command of the subdivisions of territory in closer relations with the War Department. A list of the Department and Division commands is given herewith:

(c) The Department of Mindanao-Headquarters, Zamboanga, P. I.

When called out for active service the different regiments, batteries, etc., are organized into larger fighting units. Theoretically, in the U. S. service three regiments of infantry constitute a brigade, which is commanded by a brigadier-general, and is the lar gest unit in the service composed entirely of one arm. Three brigades of infantry, together with detachments of cavalry, artillery, engineers, etc., are grouped together to form a division, commanded by a major-general. Three divisions constitute an army corps (q.v.). The command of a lieutenant-general, and three army corps are joined to form an army, commanded by a general. See articles on ARMY CORPS and ARMY IN THE FIELD. Also Drill Regulations U. S. Army.

For detailed information on the subject of the U. S. army, the reader is referred to Heitman, Historical Register and Dictionary of the United States AdminisArmy; Hatch, The tration of the American Revolu tionary Army; Upton, The Mili tary Policy of the United States; the Annual Reports of the War

Officers Enlisted Men

Total.

765

236

13,926

5,220

672

5,456

19,321

1,530

19,993

26,731

28,261

10,053

Total Regular Army Philippine Scouts.