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Arsenical Poisoning

filtration through cotton-wool, being passed through a fine, hard glass tube slightly turned up at the end. As soon as the hydrogen burns quietly after collection the tube is heated; and if, after the lapse of a sufficient time, no mirror forms on it, the materials may be considered pure. A suitable solution of the substance suspected to contain arsenic is then added through the funnel, whereupon the formation of a mirror shows the presence of arsenic. This can be confirmed by heating the mirror with air in the tube, when, if of arsenic, microscopic octahedra of As406 will be formed. Another test for arsenic is that of Reinsch. It consists in heating the suspected liquid with pure copper foil and hydrochloric acid, when the copper receives a gray deposit, which on sublimation yields octahedra if arsenic is present.

Medicinally, arsenic forms the basis of various escharotic pastes which are applied externally to destroy cancerous growths, warts, and exposed nerves of carious teeth. When administered internally in very minute doses, before food, it promotes appetite and digestion. In rather larger doses, such as three to five minims of liquor arsenicalis (a one per cent. solution), given after meals, the drug is absorbed with the food, and its effects depend on its action on the tissues. By lessening combustion it promotes the accumulation of fat without destroying the albuminous tissues. Arsenic is therefore a general tonic, and by increasing the deposit of fat under the skin it greatly improves the complexion. Given in excess, however, it causes fatty degeneration of the tissues. Medicinal doses are useful in many skin diseases, and in rheumatic, gouty, and malarial affections. Arsenic is also a good nerve tonic, and combined with iron it is used as a specific in anæmia.

Arsenical Poisoning may occur from the inhalation of arsenical fumes by artisans, as in the manufacture of opal glass; or it may occur from wall papers colored with arsenical pigments, from garments tinted with aniline dyes fixed with an arsenical mordant, etc. The usual symptoms of arsenical poisoning are a burning feeling in the abdomen, violent vomiting, dryness of the mouth and intense thirst, intestinal irritation, bloody and offensive evacuations, rapid and feeble heart's action, difficulty in breathing, great agitation and collapse. In some very acute cases coma appears suddenly, followed by death. The treatment of arsenical poisoning consists of emptying the stomach, administering

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two tablespoonfuls of the hydrated sesquioxide of iron, and then giving large draughts of milk, oil, or mucilage. In case of death from supposed arsenical poisoning, parts of the liver and kidneys, as well as the stomach and its contents, are tested for arsenic by Marsh's Test,' as described above.

If a person survive a week after taking a large dose of arsenic, it can be detected only with the greatest difficulty, so rapidly is even a toxic dose eliminated. One half-grain of arsenic may produce symptoms of poisoning, and from two to four grains may prove fatal to an adult. But there are idiosyncrasies of individuals dependent on stomach conditions and individual susceptibilities.

Arsenius. (1.) Surnamed THE SAINT (c. 354-450), an Egyptian monk; was tutor to Arcadius and Honorius, sons of Theodosius the Great. He is honored in the Greek Church on May 8, and in the Latin on July 19. (2.) Surnamed ANTORIANUS, appointed (1255) patriarch of Constantinople by Theodorus Laskaris II., who also made him, with George Muzalon, guardian of his son, John IV. When Michael VIII. (Palæologus), who had deposed and blinded John Iv., demanded absolution, Arsenius refused it, and excommunicated him. MiIchael VIII. deprived him of his rank, and banished him (1267). He died in 1273.

Arsinoë. (1.) Daughter of Ptolemy I. of Egypt, and wife successively of Lysimachus, king of Thrace, Ptolemy Ceraunos, and Ptolemy II. (Philadelphus). Several ancient cities were named after her. (2.) Daughter of Ptolemy XIII.; carried captive to Rome by Julius Cæsar, and murdered by Antony to please Cleopatra.

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Arsis and Thesis (Gr. 'elevation' and depression'). In prosody, arsis signifies the strong or primary accent in a word, thesis the weak or secondary accent. music, they denote respectively the strong and the weak beat in a bar; the reverse of the Greek usage, as, in the choric dances, the arsis, or upward movement of the foot, was the weaker.

Arson. The act of unlawfully and maliciously setting fire to a house, barn, or other building of another. It is not arson at common law to burn standing corn, stacked hay, timber, or other personal property of another, nor to burn one's Own house, even though the object thereof be to injure or defraud another person, as a mortgagee or insurer of the premises. In some jurisdictions some or all of these acts have fallen within statutory definitions

Art

of arson, and in all jurisdictions the intentional infliction of injury upon another by means of fire is punishable as a crime. Arson was long dealt with in our legal system as a capital offence. Though the death penalty is no longer imposed, it is still regarded as a heinous offence, and is punishable by varying periods of imprisonment, depending upon the nature of the offence and the jurisdiction in which it is committed. Where arson results in loss of life it comes under modern statutory definitions of murder, and is punishable as such.

Ars Poetica (also called EPISTLE TO THE Pisos), a poetic epistle by the Roman poet Horace (1st century B.C.), in which he tried to determine the laws of poetic composition. Subsequent works, written with a similar view, include Vida's Ars Poetica (1527); Sir Philip Sidney's Apology for Poetry (1595); Boileau's Art Poétique (1674); Pope's Essay on Criticism (1711); Louis Racine's Réflexions sur la Poésie (1752).

Art has been defined as the manifestation of emotion obtaining external interpretation, now by expressive arrangements of line, form, or color, now by a series of gestures, sounds or words governed by particular rhythmical cadence' (Véron). Each of these different ways of expression is described as an art, and in virtue of the organs through which they severally appeal to the mind, they are usually grouped as (1) 'arts of the eye,' and (2) ́arts of the ear.' Architecture, sculpture, and painting, with the minor arts of taste associated with them, are the former; literature and music are the latter. The drama and the music drama, with the ancient and symbolic dance, appealing to both sight and hearing, are composite. Excluding the minor arts, the function of which is to give pleasure by adorning articles of use, all the arts have a common origin in the desire to reproduce the feeling awakened in the artist by the contemplation of life and nature. But each art is better suited to the presentation of certain emotions than the others, and the range of the expressive power of each is determined by the limitations of its medium.

The Fine and the Decorative Arts. Popular usage, however, usually limits the term 'art' to architecture, sculpture, and painting, and such handicrafts as goldsmith's work, enamelling, pottery, and wood-carving, related to them by skill of workmanship and display of taste. In this sense art may be said to be the materialized expression of man's delight in beauty. It is not until something has been added to adorn an article

Art

already adapted for its purpose that art can be said to begin. But the instinct for adornment is practically a primal passion. There are traces of it in the earliest known works of man, and among races the least developed. In the bone and ivory remains found in prehistoric cave dwellings in France, the representation of animal and other forms points to a desire to record observation, or simply to make objects of daily use more beautiful; while the same is true of the curious and even beautiful forms and decoration of the wooden cups and vessels which the Challenger expedition found in use amongst the Admiralty Islanders, at that time in the Stone Age state of civilization. Thus the two tendenciesone decorative, the other expressive which mark all developed art are found even in its beginnings. The decorative element appeals to the senses alone, and it is the essential, if not the sole, characteristic of the applied arts. On the other hand, the expressive arts-architecture, sculpture, and painting-appeal vividly to the senses, and through the senses to the intellect and the imagination. At the same time, certain of the decorative arts approach closely to the expressive; and in some cases, as in fine decorative sculptures and mural decoration, including tapestry, they possess many of the qualities of the latter. As a rule, decoration has to forego something of expressiveness to conform to the conditions of its own highest beauty. But the expressive arts are freer, for their aim is the embodiment of the mental and emotional impressions received from reality.

Art as an Expression of Social Conditions.-Architecture has been called the mother of the arts'; but the earliest known efforts in art partake, as we have seen, of the nature of sculpture. But as soon as men commenced to erect huts and temples, the art of architecture, thus originated, provided a great and suggestive field for the exercise of the arts of sculpture and painting. At first, and for centuries, the three arts were closely related. In Egypt and Babylonia, in which they earliest developed, and in Greece, among the northern peoples, who evolved Gothic art, and during the Renaissance, the three arts worked together, while in some cases one artist is known to have practised all. The complete separation of the arts which exists to-day is comparatively modern. The art of every epoch and of every great school is, in a wide sense, the outcome of social conditions, and the expression of national or racial aspirations. Thus, religion had much to do with

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shaping the course of the arts-in Egypt and in Greece originating temple and tomb architecture, sculpture, and painting, and even supplying decorative motives for the lesser arts; in France and England, during the middle ages, producing the Gothic cathedral and wonderfully beautiful ecclesiastical furniture in metal and enamel, ivory and textiles. But if the most important works were inspired by the religious instinct, desire for beauty expressed itself in domestic and warlike furnishings also. With the Renaissance and the Reformation other elements came into play. Both of these movements, although they took such different directions north and south of the Alps, originated in a revival of learning and a renewed interest in life: the Italians found in the arts and mythologies of the classic peoples a new source of artistic impulse, leading on to the grafting of an almost pagan delight in sensuous beauty upon the art of the earlier Christian artists; the northern peoples, cut off from their religious past by a renewed religious life, left the old traditional subjects and turned to contemplate the world around them. So realism, in its modern sense, rises in the pictures of the 17th century Dutchmen. But as if to reveal how independent of environment and tradition artistic genius may be, Velasquez in Catholic Spain is simultaneously producing those marvels of atmosphere painting and impressionistic concentration which, two centuries later, were to influence painting profoundly.

Art as a Personal Expression. -All works of art are more or less colored by the individuality of the artist. Even among the Greeks, the scope of whose sculpture was largely controlled by religious considerations, and has as a general ideal the perfect beauty of the human form, the masters are distinguished from one another by individual treatment of common motives, and Phidias and Praxiteles have given their names to epochs of sculpture. During the earlier renaissance, also, although the principal works of art were wrought for the church, and deal with a clearly-marked range of subjects in a technique common to all, the individuality of the artist displays itself in the way in which any particular subjectbe it a Crucifixion, a Holy Family, or a saintly legend-is conceived, and is marked by preferences in types or accessories, form or color. It is, however, in the painting of the natured schools of the 16th and 17th centuries that personality, combined with a great but flexible technical tradition, first asserts itself fully.

Art indi

And it is towards greater vidual freedom that art has since tended to move. But art is not constantly progressive: there are periods in which it flourishes, and periods in which it declines and almost dies, neither convention nor freedom being a guarantee of excellence.

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As painting and sculpture with facts or ideas more or familiar to all, the personal ment in them is easily recognized. Architecture, however, is necessarily more a collective than a personal expression. In a great building it is the religious, social, or governing instincts and aspirations of a community, rather than the personal preferences and imagination of the architect, that are expressed; for architectural form is clearly determined by the utilitarian destination of the work. At the same time, considerable play is permitted the fancy of the designer. ticularly in variety of proportion, combination of material, and decoration.

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Convention and Tradition. Convention exercises a great influence in the arts. Indeed, to practise an art at all, it is necessary to conform to its conventions. Thus, in painting, the artist must express his impression of the visible world, or his dreams and imaginings, in color and form (or in black and white, as in etching) upon a flat surface, in terms conformable to the laws and habit of vision, at the same time giving due consideration to the decorative or merely pleasing aspect of the result. In sculpture, again, in which real form is imitated in its three dimensions, or suggested as in relief, the nature of the imita tion is controlled and determined by the material characteristics of the medium-stone or marble, bronze or silver-which, in its turn, ought to be used so as to bring out its inherent beauty as that is affected by mass and the play of light upon the modelled surfaces. Finally, architecture is largely conditioned by the utilitarian destination of buildings. by the structural possibilities of the building materials available. and by the necessity of providing against the prevailing weather.

Tradition also influences artistic form. It serves to preserve sound technical methods, and transmits from one generation to another the experience gained in experiment with new subjects or new processes. More often, however, under the form of academicism. it sets up an arbitrary ideal of subject and style, founded upon past achievements, and tends to stereotype and conventionalize art. Thus tradition is the enemy of self-expression and of experi

Art

ment. Tradition and belief in personal impressions divide the world of art into two hostile camps. But while academic influence still controls much modern art, painting and (in lesser degree) sculpture have largely freed themselves from the shackles of tradition. To-day, in every capital in Europe, there is a strong body of seceding' artists; and one of the most notable features in art during the past century has been an ever-increasing disposition to regard every kind of subject as possible of treatment in one or other of the arts. In architecture, however, tradition remains exceedingly powerful, and no style has yet been evolved adequately expressive of contemporary life.

The Function of Technique in Art.-Some would draw a distinction between the manner and the matter of art, and restrict the use of the word 'art' to the former. In reality, however, these two elements are so closely knit that to separate them, except in theory, is impossible. In all fullydeveloped art the technique, or manner of expression, is the direct outcome of the spirit in which the subject is conceived. Hence it is only in academic art that a definitely formulated method is possible. Of course, certain methods of using, let us say, oil-paint, or of carving marble, are more productive of beauty than others; and if it is possible to combine this sensuous element with the effects aimed at, it should be done. Art cannot exist without technique, but technique does not exist for itself; and if a man, by breaking through the tradition of the past, can express himself more fully, he is justified by the result. This is at once the explanation and justification of the methods of impressionist painters, and of such sculptors as Rodin and Meunier. Technique has, however, a fascination and legitimate charm of its own quite apart from its expressive power. But these appeal to the artist as craftsman, and to the connoisseur rather than to the general public. Art conists of a combination of fine emotion and skilful expressive technique. The greatest art is that which appeals with the greatest force to both the intellectual and the æsthetic emotions.

Of the many books treating of the origin and theory of the arts, most deal with them either as a branch of philosophy or metaphysics, or as so much archæology or history. Among those written from a more purely artistic standpoint, the following may be named:-Lessing's Laocoön (trans. by Sir R. Phillimore, 1874); Victor Cousin's Du Vrai,

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du Beau, et du Bien (1818; 7th ed. 1858); Véron's Esthetics (trans., 1879); Chesneau's Education of the Artist (trans. by Clara Bell, 1886); Sir J. Reynolds's Discourses (new ed. 1884); Hunt's Talks about Art (1875 and 1883); Whistler's Ten o'Clock (1888); Ruskin's, Fergusson's, and Hamilton's writings; Baldwin Brown's The Fine Arts (2nd ed. 1902); R. A. M. Stevenson's Velasquez (1899); D. S. MacColl's Nineteenth Century Art (1902); Worsfold's Judgment in Literature (1900).

Arta. (1.) Province or nomarchy of Greece and a div. of Thessaly; 395 sq. m. in area; pop. (1896) 39,144. (2.) Capital of above, on 1. bk. of Arta R., near its mouth in the Gulf of Arta, at entrance to which the battle of Actium was fought (B.C. 29). Manufactures cotton and woollen goods, and has large trade in wine and tobacco. Near it the Turks defeated the Greeks in 1822. Pop. (1900) 7,582.

Artaxata, city, on the Aras, 68 m. from Erivan, ancient capital of Armenia, now Ardashir. Το this place Hannibal fled. The Romans destroyed this city (A.D. 58), and after rebuilding it was sacked by the Persians (A.D. 370). Later the patriarch Joseph presided over its council.

Artaxerxes, a name borne by four ancient Persian kings. (1.) Surnamed LONGIMANUS, a son of Xerxes, who reigned from 464 to 425 B.C., and is mentioned in the Book of Nehemiah. (2.) Surnamed MNEMON, reigned from 405 to 358 B.C. The chief events of his reign were the defeat of Cyrus and his 10,000 Greeks at Cunaxa (401 B.C.); the war with Archelaus, king of Sparta (401394); the conclusion of the peace of Antalcidas (387); and struggles against his rebellious satraps -Evagoras of Cyprus, Ariobarzanes of Phrygia, and Datames of Cappadocia-and wars with Egypt. (3.) Surnamed OсHUS; reigned from 358 to 338 B.C., and revived for a time the decaying power of his dynasty; by Greek aid he reconquered Cyprus, Egypt, and Phoenicia. (4.) The founder of the dynasty of the Sassanidæ, after the overthrow of the Parthian empire; he reigned from 226 to 240 A.D., and waged war with Alexander Severus, the Roman emperor. See Rawlinson's Persia (1873), and Duncker's Hist. of Antiq. (trans. 1877-82).

Artel, the Russian co-operative organization of artisans or skilled workmen. The organization of the different associations varies, but the fundamental principle of all is equal remuneration and equal shares of work. See Stähr's Ursprung, etc., der Russischen Artelle (1890).

Artery

Artemidorus. (1.) Of Ephesus (c. 100 B.C.), a Greek geographer, who made voyages in the Mediterranean and Red Seas, to Iberia and Gaul, and as far as the Southern Ocean. His work, called Periplus, is not extant. Some fragments are collected in Hudson's Geographi Græci Minores (1826), vol. i. (2.) Also of Ephesus, but surnamed DALDIANUS, from Daldis, a town in Lydia, his mother's birthplace. He lived in Rome from about 140-180 A.D., and wrote a work on dreams, which is extant. Edited by Hercher (1864).

Artemis, called DIANA by the Romans, one of the chief divinities of the Greeks, and twin sister of Apollo, was the daughter_of Zeus (Jupiter) and Leto (Latona). She was born in the island of Delos, and was worshipped under a variety of aspects. (1.) The earliest Greek conceptions of Artemis regards her as a goddess of the fields and wild country, unmarried certainly, but not a virgin goddess; indeed, she is closely connected with childbirth, and is worshipped particularly by women. (2.) The Artemis or Diana of Ephesus, whose worship was widely extended by colonists on the coasts of the Black Sea, in Sicily, in Massilia (Marseilles), and other Greek-speaking lands, was probably a nature goddess of the Phrygians or other inhabitants of Asia Minor, whose worship was adopted by the Greek settlers. A goddess of fertility and wild life, her image represented her with many breasts, and attended by wild animals. (3.) The general conception of Artemis in Greek literature, beginning with Homer, is that of the virgin huntress, in close association with her brother Apollo. (4.) She is sometimes confounded with Hecate, and (5) with Selene, or the Moon; also (6) with Britomartis (or Dictynna) and Eileithyia. See also DIANA,

Artemisia. (1.) Daughter of Lygdamis and queen of Halicarnassus, the birthplace of Herodotus, who tells her story. As a vassal of Xerxes, she accompanied his expedition against Greece, and fought at the battle of Salamis. (2.) Daughter of Hecatomnus, and sister, wife, and successor of the Carian prince Mausolus, who reigned from 352350 B.C. Famous from the erection of the mausoleum at Halicarnassus to her husband's memогу. Died 348 B.C.

Artemisia. See WORMWOOD. Artemus Ward. See BROWNE, CHARLES FARRAR.

Artery, a blood-vessel which conveys blood from the heart to any part of the body. (See HEART.) Arteries are generally

[blocks in formation]

Diagram showing the Principal Arteries.

1. Heart. 2. Arch of aorta. 3. Left carotid. 4. Right carotid. 5. Temporal [6. Vena cava]. 7. Thoracic aorta. 8. Brachial. 9. Intercostal. 10. Radial. 11. Ulnar. 12. Palmar arch. 13. Renal. 14. Cœlic axis and mesenteric. 15. Iliac. 16. Femoral. 17. Tibial. 18. Dorsalis pedis.

Structure.-The walls of arteries are composed of three coats

(1) the external coat, or tunica adventitia, an outer fibrous tunic; (2) the middle, or tunica media, of muscular, elastic tissue; and (3) the internal, or tunica intima, lined with endothelial cells. The muscular fibres are unstriped, predominating in large arteries; while the elastic fibres, predominating in small arteries, form a network intertwined with the layers of muscular fibre.

The

arteries are capable of extension and distention-a power of great service in securing the maintenance of the necessary circulation. Rigidity is a dangerous condition occurring during degeneration of the artery from disease or senile changes. It is a precursor of softening and final rupture, an accident which usually causes

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death when occurring in the brain. (See PHLEBOTOMY, BLEEDING, HEMORRHAGE.) In arterial wounds the means of control are: (1) immediate pressure; (2) cautery or hot iron; (3) ligature, after elevation of the limb. In venous wounds, simple pressure is generally sufficient to stop the flow of blood.

Diseases of Arteries. (1.) Thrombosis consists of a deposit of blood-fibrin within an artery, thus producing a clot which diminishes the calibre of the artery. Plugging of the vessel may result in obliteration of it. Thrombosis may result from disease of the walls of arteries chiefly in cases of atheroma and aneurism. In the former case it often causes the closure of the vessel. Acute inflammation causes thrombosis. (2.) Embolism. If a piece of a thrombus is broken off, and carried in the blood stream till it becomes impacted in a small artery, it forms an embolus or plug, which may become organized, or may be invaded by septic organisms, and set up inflammation. (3.) Obliteration of arteries. This may happen by ligature. When an artery is ligatured, the middle and internal coats are torn through; the blood stagnates, and a thrombus is formed. It is followed by inflammatory changes, affecting first the internal coat; granulation ensues; and the result is that the portion of the artery concerned is resolved into a piece of cicatricial connective tissue. When an artery has been wounded a somewhat similar process occurs. (4.) Acute inflammation of arteries. Arteries often become infected by inflammation in their neighborhood. (5.) Atheroma. (6.) Calcareous infiltration. (7.) Endarteritis obliterans is not an independent disease, but accompanies other morbid conditions: it consists in a thickening of the internal coat, leading to obliteration; seen especially in interstitial inflammation of organs, and frequent in chronic interstitial nephritis. (8.) Fatty degeneration and calcification. When great destruction of bone occurs, the lime salts may be deposited in distant parts, the lungs and the mucous membrane of the alimentary canal being the chief seats. Incrustation has occurred in an artery. The deposition increased in amount the farther removed the artery was from the heart, and it was especially manifest where the blood current was permanently impeded. (9.) Amyloid disease is the waxy degeneration of the tissues; it is found in the walls of arteries, and is due to poisons in the blood. (10.) Aneurism. (11.) Syphilis and tuberculosis of arteries. These arise usually by extension of the

Artesian Wells

infective process to the artery, and are generally part of a more or less pronounced lesion. Syphilitic effects occur in the neighborhood of gummata, more especially of the brain and its membranes. There is an extension of the specific inflammation to the walls of the artery, so that the coats are infiltrated with round cells, and the artery is thickened, with a resultant cartilaginous consistence. Tuberculosis of organs frequently extends to the artery. See Morris's Human Anatomy.

Artesian Wells. The name 'artesian wells' was originally applied to flowing wells exclusively, being derived from the French province of Artois (mediæval L. Artesia), where the oldest known flowing wells were sunk in 1126. In the United States the term has come to be applied to all wells in which the water rises above the strata in which it is found. The conditions necessary for such a rise are a pervious stratum between two impervious strata, the pervious stratum being exposed to moisture at some point higher than that at which the well is located. The ideal section for producing artesian flow is shown in the illustration below. Such wells are found in places all over the world. In the United States they are largely used for city water-supply and in the arid regions for irrigation.

The sections of the United States where artesian wells have been most largely developed and used for irrigation are the James River Valley in South Dakota, Southern Texas, Pecos Valley in New Mexico and Texas, and Southern California. Many wells used for irrigation, which were formerly flowing wells, have ceased to flow and the water is

Ideal Section for Artesian Flow.

now pumped from them from constantly increasing depths, showing that the water is being withdrawn from the water-bearing strata more rapidly than it is supplied by rainfall or seepage from streams. It is probable that additional artesian basins of sufficient capacity to irrigate large areas of land may yet be found in the United States when more thorough investigations have been made. Such investigations are now being made by the Division of Hydrology of the U. S. Geological Survey.

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1. Cambridge Downs Bore. North Queensland. 2. Artesian Well in Southern California. 3. Moree Bore, New South Wales (depth, 2.792 feet, daily flow, 1,108,080 gallons; temperature, 115° Fahr.). 4. Charlotte Plains Bore, Queensland. 5. Artesian Well, Roswell, New Mex. VOL. I-20

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