Avernus

teers in Sept., 1862, and was brevetted colonel (Dec., 1863) for a cavalry expedition into Southwestern Virginia, resulting in the destruction of military stores at Salem, Va., and a major-general (1865) both in the regular and in the volunteer service for 'gallant and distinguished conduct at the battle of Moorfield, Va.' In 1865 he resigned from the service, and subsequently was engaged in the asphalt paving business, inventing an asphalt pavement.

Avernus, LAKE, Italy, 10 m. w. of Naples, the crater of an extinct volcano, where the ancients placed the entrance to the infernal regions. (Cf. 'Facilis descensus Averno, Virgil's Eneid, VI.), Agrippa, at the command of Augustus, connected the lake with the sea, and built a naval port, which existed down to 1538, when the volcanic uprising of Mount Nuovo destroyed it, and completely altered the face of the adjacent country. Lake Avernus is 21 ft. deep, but only 4 ft. above sea-level, and not more than 2 m. in circumference.

Averrhoës, or AVERROES, whose name was ABUL-IBN-ROSHD

of

(1126-98), Arab philosopher, was born at Cordova in Spain; was judge (from 1169) in Seville and Cordova, and then for many years was court physician to Yakub al-Mansur, Almohade sovereign of Morocco and Cordova. Having an unbounded admiration for Aristotle, whom he regarded as the incarnation of all human wisdom, he was for ages famous as the great commentator his master, and at Padua his school flourished until nearly the middle of the 17th century. Roger Bacon and John Baconthorpe were the most conspicuous of the English Averrhoists. Averrhoës drew the clearest distinctions between human science (knowledge) and religion, and discriminated sharply between this last and the logic-chopping subtleties of theology. One of the central features of his teaching was the postulation of a universal transcendent intellect which manifests itself eternally in different degrees in individual men. By substituting the conception of the human soul for the intellect in this doctrine, the theological opponents of the Averrhoist school accused Averrhoës of denying the immortality of the soul. The best Latin edition of his commentaries was issued at Venice in 1552 and following years. See J. Müller's Philosophie und Theologie (1875); Renan's Averroes et l'Averroisme (3rd ed. 1869); and Mehren's Etudes sur la Philosophie d'Averrhoës (1888).

Avers, Alpine valley, canton Grisons, Switzerland, joining the valley of the Hinter-Rhein. The lower portion (Ferrera Glen), be

497

tween Canicul and Cresta (which stands at an altitude of 6,394 ft.), is one of the highest inhabited places in Europe.

Aversa, tn. and episc. see, prov. Caserta, Italy, 12 m. by rail N. of Naples. Wine is nade here; hemp and cotton are woven, and furniture manufactured. Pop. (1901) 23,189.

Avery, ELROY MCKENDREE (1844), American writer, born at Erie, Mich. He graduated at the University of Michigan in 1871, taught school for several years, and was a member of the Ohio Senate (1893-7). He became well known as the author of a series of text books on physics and chemistry which were used in public schools throughout the country, and subsequently devoted himself to the preparation of a popular History of the United States and its People from their Earliest Records to the Present Time, to be completed in 15 vols. The first volume appeared in 1904, and is in many respects one of the best treatments of the period covered, an unusual degree of accuracy being secured through the coöperation of eminent specialists.

Avesta. See ZEND-AVesta. Aveyron, dep., France, on s.w. slope of central plateau, roughly triangular in outline; area, 3,376 sq. m. Wholly in the basin of the Garonne, the dep. is crossed by its tribs., the Lot, the Aveyron, and the Tarn. Much of the surface is barren, the agricultural districts being found chiefly in the lower valleys of the Lot and Aveyron (Basse Marche). Forests are still extensive, and round Aubin coal, iron ore, lead, and silver are mined. The natural beauties of the dep. and its mineral springs attract tourists. Pop. (1901) 382,074.

Avianus, FLAVIUS, a Latin fabulist of the 4th century, author of forty-two fables in imitation of Phædrus and Babrius, still extant, set forth in elegiac verse. Ed. by Lachmann (1845). See The Fables of Avianus, ed. by R. Ellis (1887).

Aviation. See AERONAUTICS; BALLOON; FLYING MACHINE.

Aviary, a large cage or enclosure for keeping birds. Such structures are common and enjoyable in mild climates, but permissible only in summer in most of the United States, and hence are uncommon except in zoological gardens. See CAGE BIRDS.

Avicebron, or SALOMON-IBNGABIROL (1020-70), Jewish poet and philosopher, born at Malaga in Spain. He is the author of the philosophical work Fons Vitæ, or Fons Sapientia, written in Arabic, which had a great influence on the scholastic writers of the middle ages. His teaching was compounded of Jewish theology, Aris

Avignon

totelianism, and Neo-Platonism. His writings exercised also a great influence upon the development of the Cabbala. He composed numerous poems and hymns, several of which now form part of the synagogue prayer-book. See Kaufmann's Studien über S. Ibn Gabirol (1899); Geiger's S. Gabirol und seine Gedichte (1867); Munk's Mélanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe (1857).

Avicenna, or IBN-SINA (9801037), Arabian philosopher and physician, born near Bokhara; died at Hamadan, in Persia. For some years he led an unsettled life, living, among other places, at Rai, near Teheran; then he found his way to Hamadan, where for a time he occupied the position of grand-vizier to the ruling chief; and finally settled in Ispahan. His principal work is the Canon of Medicine, written in Arabic, early translated into Latin, and for centuries (to the middle of the 17th century in some) a leading text-book in European universities. This is based upon Galen -i.e. ultimately upon Hippocrates and Aristotle. In philosophy his most important work was AshShafa, an encyclopædia of the philosophical sciences, of which an extract, Al-Nadjat, contains his logic, metaphysics, and physics. His philosophical doctrine is mainly Aristotelian, adapted in many parts to the religious faith of the Koran. His works, which were translated into Latin in the 12th century, appeared in 1493 in Venice, and afterward in numerous editions. See Munk's Mélan

ges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe (1857), Mehren's Traités Mystiques d'Avicenne (1889-99), and Carra de Vaux's Avicenne (1900).

Avicennia, or WHITE MANGROVE, a genus of Verbenacea, evergreen trees and shrubs indigenous to the tidal estuaries and salt marshes of most tropical countries. The astringent bark of the A. tomentosa is much used in Rio Janeiro for tanning; in New South Wales the wood, being hard and durable, is used for mallets, etc.

Avienus, RUFUS FESTUS, a Latin poet who wrote on geographical and astronomical subjects in the 4th century A.D. To him are ascribed (1) Descriptio Orbis Terra; (2) Ora Maritima, a description of the coast of the Mediterranean from Marseilles to Cadiz; (3) Aratea Phænomena and Aratea Prognostica, free translations from the Greek author Aratus. See Wernsdorf's Poeta Latini Minores, vol. v., or Holder's ed. (1886).

Avigliano, tn., prov. Potenza, Italy; is built on a hill (3,010 ft.) 8 m. N.W. of Potenza; it manufactures explosives. Pop. (1901) 18,481.

Avignon (Lat.Avenio), tn., cap.

Notre Dame des Doms (12th century), perched on a rock (280 ft.), between which and the river is the well-known Promenade des Rocher des Doms, and a multitude of other ecclesiastical structures, are interesting (la ville sonnante of Rabelais). A continuous belt of walls (1349-68) encircles the city. Villeneuve, on the r. bk. of the river, is connected with Avignon by the famous bridge built in 1108, and partly destroyed in 1669. The only industries of note are those of silk, copper, zinc, and lead. The Popes regularly resided in Avignon from 1309 to 1378, and at intervals up to 1417, the town and surrounding district remaining a papal possession until 1791. Petrarch first saw Laura in Avignon, and she was buried in the church of the Cordeliers, now destroyed. In 1873 John Stuart Mill died here. Pop. (1901) 46,896. See Joudon's Avignon: son Histoire, ses Papes, ses Monuments, et ses Environs (1842); and Muntz's 'La Cour Pontificale d'Avignon,' in Revue des Questions Historiques, vol. xxii. (1899).

Avila (anc. Abula), city of Spain cap. of prov. of same name, 70 m. N.W. of Madrid, on main N. Ry., ancient and picturesque decaying city on the lower slopes of the Guadarramas. The Moorish walls

The Palace of the Popes, Avignon.

'apostle of Andalusia,' born in La Mancha; passed twenty years as a priest. He belonged to the Spanish mystic school, and left a number of works published by Ruiz de Mesa in Vida y Obras de Juan de Avila (1618).

Avila, SANCHO DE, a Spanish general who served under the Duke of Alva and under Requesens in the Netherlands. He defeated Louis of Nassau, and sacked Antwerp in 1576, but was killed at the siege of Maestricht in 1579. See Brantôme's Vies des Grands Capitaines (1665).

Avila y Zuniga, LUIZ DE (c. 1490-1560), Spanish historian and diplomatist, favorite of Charles v. His account of the emperor's war with the Protestant princes, Comentarios de la Guerra de Alemaña (1548; new ed. 1852), has been translated into several languages.

Aviles, or SAN NICOLAS DE AVILES, tn., prov. Oviedo, Spain, 15 m. from Oviedo, on ry. to Gijon. Port on Bay of Biscay. Several foundries and textile factories. Pop. (1900) 12,763.

Avison, CHARLES (?1710-70), English musician, of Newcastle; is known by his Essay on Musical Expression, by several sets of sonatas and concertos, and by his edition, in eight volumes, of Marcello's Psalms. See Hawk

(455-456 A.D.), was a descendant of a noble family of Auvergne. As prefect of Gaul he defeated the Huns and Vandals. He became ambassador at the court of Theodoric, king of the Visigoths, with whose assistance he ascended the throne at the death of Maximus (455). After a reign of fourteen months he was deposed by Ricimer, and appointed bishop of Placentia.

Aviz, ORDER OF ST. BENEDICT, a Portuguese military and reli gious order founded in 1162 to oppose the Moors, the knights being under the Cistercian and Benedictine discipline. In 1211-23 King Alfonso removed the order to the fortress of Aviz, whence the name. It is now (since 1879) simply a military order, with three classes grand cross, commander, and chevalier. See LawrenceArcher's Orders of Chivalry.

Avoca, or OvOCA, short riv., Co. Wicklow, Ireland, formed by the sub-tribs. Avonmore and Avonbeg at the meeting of the waters, and famed for its silvan scenery and for Thomas Moore's wellknown lines (Irish Melodies,1779). Avocado Pear. See ALLIGATOR PEAR.

Avocets, widely-distributed birds belonging to the genus Recurvirostra, allied to the plovers and sandpipers, and characterized

Avogadro

by the long up-curved beak. The American avocet is rather common west of the Mississippi River, breeding on the ground in marshy places, and migrating to the gulf coast in winter. It has a reddish head and neck, whitish body and black and white wings.

Avogadro, COUNT AMADEO (1776-1856), professor of physics at Vercelli (1809), of mathematics at Turin (1820), discovered 'Avogadro's law' that equal volumes of different gases, at the same temperature and pressure, contain the same number of molecules.

Avola, tn., prov. Syracuse, Sicily, 22 m. by rail s.w. of Syracuse; produces excellent wine, almonds, and sugar. Pop. (1901) 16,301.

Avon, Celtic word meaning 'river'; a common name for British streams, of which the following are the most important:-(1.) Upper or Warwickshire Avon, rising near Naseby, Northamptonshire, and flowing through Warwickshire and Worcestershire to join the Severn on the 1. bk. at Tewkesbury, passing Stratford, hence

The Avocet.

Shakespeare's designation 'Swan of Avon.' Its length is nearly 100

m.

(2.) Lower Avon, or Bristol Avon, entering the Bristol Channel 6 m. below Bristol: length, 70 m. It is subject to very high spring tides, which sometimes rise above 40 ft. (3.) East Avon, in Wiltshire, flowing through Salisbury; length, 50 m. (4.) A trib. of Spey, Banffshire, Scotland, 30 m. long. (5.) Trib. of Clyde, Lanarkshire, Scotland, 28 m. long.

Avon, vil., Livingston co., N. Y. on the Genesee R., and on the Erie R. R. The mineral springs and beautiful scenery have made it a non lar summer resort. Pop. (1910) vil. 2,053; town 3,432.

Avondale, par., 93 m. s.w. of Hamilton, W. Lanarkshire, Scotland, with the battlefield of Drumclog (1679), immortalized in Scott's Old Mortality.

Avonmouth, tn. and docks at mouth of river Avon, Gloucester

499

shire, England, 6 m. N.W. of Bristol. In March, 1902, the first sod for the extended dock works was cut by the Prince of Wales.

Avulsion. The rapid wear.ng away or separation of land through the action of the sea or of a natural watercourse. The process is in legal effect opposed to accretion, whereby the shore line is altered by imperceptible degrees. In the latter case the title to the newmade land belongs to the riparian owner to whose soil it has been added, whereas the title of the owner of land severed by avulsion remains unaffected by the change. See ACCRETION.

Awaji, island of Japan, at the eastern entrance of the Inland Sea, two hours by steamer from Kobe. Its area is 218 sq. m., and pop. some 170,000. Its scenery is very beautiful, and the island is much visited by tourists.

Award. The judicial finding of a referee or arbitrator. The term is sometimes employed to describe a judgment or decree of a court assessing the damages due a litigant, but it is more commonly used in connection with extrajudicial proceedings, as the assessment of damages on the condemnation of land for public use, the determination of questions in dispute by arbitrators, and the like. It is also properly applicable to the findings arrived at in international arbitrations. When conducted under authority of law an arbitration award has much of the effect of a judicial decision. See ARBITRATION.

Awe. (1.) River of Argyllshire, Scotland, flowing N.W. from loch of same name into Loch Etive; a famous salmon and sea-trout stream with rugged and precipitous banks, especially in the Pass of Brander. (2.) Loch of Argyllshire, Scotland, 22 m. E. of Oban, 118 ft. above sea-level, and 22 m. long. Ben Cruachan looks down on the island-studded N. end, and on the N.E. shore is Kilchurn Castle (built 1441), mentioned in 'The M'Gregors' Gathering.'

Awn, a bristle-like growth, called also beard, which arises from the backs or apices of the outer flowering glumes of many species of grasses and cereals; a prolongation of the midrib.

Awomori, or AOMORI, tn. and seapt., Japan, with a fine natural harbor, at N. extremity of Nippon, 444 m. by rail N. of Tokyo. Has considerable trade, chiefly with Hakodate. Pop. 11,000.

Ax, or AX-LES-THERMES, tn., dep. Áriège, France, on Ariège R., 25 m. S.E. of Foix, at 2,350 ft. altitude; famous for its warm sulphur springs, sixty-one in number (63171° F.) Pop. (1901) 1,503.

Axe (spelt ax in the Bible), an instrument used for hewing and chopping wood; formerly also a

Axis

weapon of war. (See BATTLEAXE.) It was in the earlier ages made of flint or bronze, but is now made of iron with a cutting edge of steel. The head is pierced to allow entrance to the end of the handle, haft, or helve. The cutting edge is in the same plane as the handle, and not, as in the adze, at right angles to it.

Axestone, a hard variety of mineral, jade or nephrite, of a greenish color; so called from its use by the Maoris and the South Sea islanders for axe-heads. It is found in Cornwall, also in Silesia, Central Asia, and China. See JADE.

Axholme, or AXHOLM, ISLE OF, a dist. in Lincolnshire, insulated by the Trent, Don, Idle, and Torne; about 17 m. long by 9 m. broad. Epworth and Crowle are the principal places in it. The practice of warping'-i.e of inundating the land at certain times with mud-laden water-is still pursued. It was drained and reclaimed by Vermuyden (162534).

Axil, the upper angle between a leaf and the stem from which the leaf arises. It is the normal position for the origin of lateral buds, which are therefore termed axiliary. The old term was ala.

Axilla (Lat. armpit ') is, strictly speaking, the armpit, or any other part of the body which forms a similar angle; but for practical purposes axilla is applied to the armpit only. It is the pyramida! space which lies between the inner side of the upper arm, or arm proper, and the adjacent part of the chest wall. The apex of this pyramid points upward and inward toward the root of the neck. The large nerves and vessels for the arm pass through the axilla, and the glands there are a common scat of abscesses and other troubles.

Axim, seapt. tn., W. Africa, on the Gold Coast, w. of Cape Three Points; government hospital.

Axinite, a comparatively rare mineral composed of silica, boron, aluminium, and calcium. It occurs in clove-brown, triclinic crystals with acute edges.

Axinomancy, an ancient Greek ordeal for the discovery of crime. See DIVINATION.

Axiom, a proposition or premise which, being self-evident, requires no proof, and is taken for granted. As a technical term the word 'axiom' is now restricted to the self-evident premises of geometry, the corresponding term in philosophy being intuition.

Axis, in general, an imaginary line about which any solid body rotates, or about which any geometrical figure or organic structure is symmetrical. Thus, we speak of the axis of a planet, running through the sphere from

Axis Decr

pole to pole; and in scientific instruments, machinery, etc., the axis is represented by a pin, bearing, axle, or other element, about which, as the centre of its rotation, a part is free to move. And again, we speak of the axis of an ellipse, parabola, cone, etc.; and the stem of a plant, about which the leaves, branches, etc., are disposed in a radially symmetrical manner, is termed the axis. In human osteology the name is applied to the second cervical vertebra, which supports the atlas, or highest bone in the vertebral column.

Axis Deer, an Indian woodland deer, profusely spotted with white on a dark background. It is about the size of the European fallow deer; the male has slender, sharp-pointed horns, little branched. It has been kept in parks in Europe and occasionally in America.

Axminster, mrkt. tn., Devon, England, on the L. & S. W. R., 27 m. w. of Dorchester, on the Axe. The manufacture of carpets, for which it was formerly noted, has been (1835) transferred to Wilton. Tooth and nail brushes are now extensively made, and there are corn, flour, and saw mills and iron-founding. About 1 m. to the s. are remains of Newenham Abbey, a Cistercian foundation of the 13th century. Pop. (1911)

12,343.

Axolotl (Amblystoma, or Siredon pisciformis), a Mexican and N. American amphibian, which resembles a newt in shape, and has a powerful tail and three pairs of simple externai gills. In this form it breed's freely, both under natural conditions and in aquaria, the young resembling their parents. Under certain conditions, as yet not fully understood, this gilled

8 TO 10 IN.

Axolotl, gilled form (above) and adult (below).

stage may be converted into another form (Amblystoma), in which the gills and the membrane of the tail are lost; these forms also reproduce, but their young are axolotls, and are not like their parents. These facts justify us in regarding the axolotl as a prematurely sexual larva, and the gill-less form (Amblystoma) as

500

the adult. This amphibian is eaten by the Mexican Indians.

Axum, AxOUM, or AKSUM, ruined tn., Tigré, Abyssinia, 113 m. s.w. of Massowah; formerly the capital of a powerful Ethiopian kingdom. (See ETHIOPIA.) Axum has been Christian since the 4th century, and is now regarded as a sacred city by the Abyssinians. There are numerous remains of Greek architecture. Pop. 5,000.

Ayacucho, tn., Peru, cap. cf dep. of same name, in lat. 13° 8' S. In 1539 Pizarro founded the town of San Juan de la Victoria on the site of the Indian Huamanga (Falcon Rock); and after the victory of General Sucre over the Spaniards (Dec. 9, 1824) the independence of Peru was secured, and the name of the town was changed to Ayacucho. Alt. 9,260 ft. Pop. 20,000.

Ayala, PEDRO DE, the ambassador of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain at the court of James Iv. of Scotland in 1498. His interesting account of Scotland and its people is given in Hume Brown's Early Travellers in Scotland (1891).

Ayala, PEDRO LOPEZ DE (13321407), Spanish pot and historian. A noble of the court of Peter the Cruel, he fought for Henry of Trastamare at the battle of Najera (1367). He afterward occupied the positions of councillor to Henry II. and high chancellor to John 1. His great work is the Crónicas de los Reyes de Castilla, 1350-96, a vivacious and brilliant work (best ed. 1780). He also translated Livy into Spanish.

Ayamonte, fortified tn., prov. Huelva, Spain, on 1. bk. of the Guadiana, about 2 m. from its mouth; good harbor, and fisheries of cod, sardines, and tunny.

Aye-aye (Chiromys madagascariensis), a remarkable lemur, nocturnal in its habits, and confined to Madagascar, where it inhabits the dense forests. A notable peculiarity is the rodentlike structure of the front teeth. The hands are also very remarkable, the middle finger being exceedingly long and very slender; it is said to be used in picking out wood-boring insect larvæ. The aye-aye is about as large as a cat, and has large naked ears.

Ayer, vil., Middlesex co., Mass., 10 m. E. of Fitchburg, on four branches of the Boston and Me. R. R. Machinery, leather, boxes, etc., are manufactured. Pop. (1910) 2,797.

Ayeshah, wife of Mohammed. On his death (632) she secured the caliphate for her father, AbuBekr, against the prophet's sonin-law, Ali; and again, at the Caliph Othman's death, she tried to exclude Ali, but was taken prisoner (656). She died at Medina (677). See MOHAMMED.

Aylesbury, mrkt. tn., Buck

Aylmer

inghamshire, England, near the Thame; an important railway centre. Some of the interesting public buildings are due to the Rothschild family. Outside the town, on the N.E., is a female convict prison. Large printing works; other industries, straw-plaiting and lace-making. Dairy-farming and the rearing of ducks are extensively followed in the district. Hartwell House, about 2 m. N. of Aylesbury, was the residence of Louis XVIII. during his exile (1810-14). Pop. (1911) 11,048.

Aylesford (anc. Ailesjorde, Eyl lesforde), tn. and par., Kent, England, 3 m. N.N.W. of Maidstone, on the Medway. Kits Coitv Hose, a remarkable cromlech, "The Countless Stones,' an intrenchment on Blue Bell Hill, and

Ayllon, LUCAS VASQUEZ DE (c. 1475-1526), Spanish colonizer. In 1526 he attempted to establish a colony on the North America mainland, the site of which has often been identified with that on which Jamestown, Va., was later founded. Ayllon died in 1526, and the colony was abandoned.

Aylmer, JOHN (1521-94), English theologian, tutor to Lady Jane Grey, was appointed archdeacon of Stow (1553), but was expelled for his disbelief in transubstantiation: took refuge in Strassburg, and later in Zürich. where he acted as tutor, and helped John Fox in the translation of Acts and Monuments into Latin. When Elizabeth came to the throne he returned to England, and became archdeacon of Lincoln (1562), and then bishop of London (1577), where he was very unpopular. His reply to Knox's Monstrous Regiment of Women, entitled An Harborowe for faithful and trewe Subjects, etc. (1559), is the best known of his works. He

Aylmer

is said to have been the original of Spenser's Morrell, 'the proude and ambitious pastoure' of the Shepheard's Calendar.

Aylmer, MATTHEW, LORD AYLMER (1643-1720), British admiral. In the actions off_Beachy Head (1690) and Cape Barfleur (1692) he commanded the Royal Catherine. In 1709 he became admiral of the fleet, and in 1714 governor of Greenwich Hospital.

Ayloffe, SIR JOSEPH (1709–81), English antiquary, appointed one of the keepers of state papers in 1763. He was vice-president of the Society of Antiquaries, whose charter of incorporation he took a prominent part in procuring. His chief work is Calendars of the Antient Charters (1772). He edited Leland's Collectanea (6 vols. 1771). See Thomson's Hist. of the Roy. Soc.

a

Aymaras, numerous and formerly powerful S. American people whose territory lay chiefly on the Bolivian plateau round Lake Titicaca, and thence south to and beyond Lake Aullagas. The Aymaras, whose proper name is Colla, appear to represent the primitive stock from which sprang the Quichuas-i.e. the dominant people of the Peruvian empire. The two languages are related as mother and daughter. The Aymaras are generally undersized and ungainly, with short, thickset, robust figures, arched nose, small extremities, coppery skin, and highly brachycephalic (round) head. Their civilization

was

antecedent to that of the Incas, but was in some respects more highly developed, judging at least from the stupendous monuments of Tiahuanaco at the south end of Lake Titicaca. All are now nominal Catholics. In 1900, Aymaras of pure stock were estiniated at about 500,000, and the Hispano-Aymara half-breeds at 100,000. See Squire's Travels in Peru, 1877; Brinton's American Race, 1901.

Aymer de Valence, EARL OF PEMBROKE (d. 1324), was the son of a half-brother of Henry II. In 1306 he became guardian of Scotland, defeated Bruce at Methven, but was defeated by Bruce at Loudon Hill. He sided with Lancaster against the court, but was afterward reconciled to the king. He was appointed lieutenant of Scotland in 1314, and fought at Bannockburn.

Aymon, or HAIMON, of Dordogne, the father of four sonsRenaud, Guiscard, Alard, and Richard-whose adventures form one of the most popular romances of the middle ages, attributed to Huon de Villeneuve (13th century). Renaud, or Regnault, the owner of the famous steed Bayard, makes successful war against Charlemagne. The brothers ap

501

pear in the works of Tasso, Boiardo, and notably the character of Rinaldo in Ariosto's Orlando. See Ferrario's Storia degli Antichi Romanzi (1828-9); Caxton's Foure Sonnes of Aymon (?1489).

Ayr, cap. of Ayrshire, Scotland, and a roy. bur., situated on river Ayr, 33 m. s.s.w. of Paisley, on the G. & S.W. Ry. A temporary barrack, known as the Barns of Ayr, was (1297) the scene of Wallace's tragical exploit. The old church of St. John was the meeting-place of the parliament of Bruce in 1315, which assigned the succession to his brother Edward. The Wallace Tower, 113 ft. high, was erected in 1834. There is a statue to Robert Burns (1891). The 'Twa Brigs' of Burns's poem stand within 500 yds. of each other. The Carnegie Library was erected in 1893; a lunatic asylum, 1869; Ayr County Hospital, 1883. The harbor has a patent slip dock 800 ft. long; depth of water in the basins, 19 ft. to 23 ft. The industries are carpet, lace, woollen, chemical manufacturing, and shoemaking. Pop. (1911)36,228.

In

Ayrer, JACOB (d. 1605), a German dramatic poet, and a notary at Nuremberg, whose Opus Thealricum was published in 1618. his early works he follows Hans Sachs, but frequently models upon Shakespeare, or uses the same sources. A new edition of his Opus Theatricum, in 5 vols., edited by Keller, was published at Stuttgart in 1865. See Robertson's Zur Kritik J. Ayrers (1892).

Ayrshire, a maritime co. in the s.w. of Scotland, bounded on the w. by the Firth of Clyde and North Channel; area, 1,142 sq. m., or 730,947 ac. Agriculturally rich, Ayrshire does a large export trade. The Ayrshire cows yield milk rich in butter-making qualities. The renowned 'Dunlop' cheese has been somewhat superseded by the Cheddar, which is largely made. Early potatoes are extensively grown. The principal town is Ayr; the seaports, in addition to Ayr and Ardrossan, being Girvan, Irvine, Largs, Saltcoats, and Troon. There are woollen and steam-engine factories, foundries, tanneries, chemical and dynamite works, shoe, carpet, and bonnet making, and extensive coal-mining. Pop. (1911)268,332. See James Paterson's Hist. of the County of Ayr (1847-52); Ayr Archaol, and Hist. Collections (187879); and A. Millar's Castles and Mansions of Ayrshire (1885).

Ayton, SIR ROBERT (1570-1638), Scottish poet, was born at Kinaldie, Fifeshire; travelled in France, and was successively gentleman of the king's bedchamber, secretary to the queen, and master of requests. His poems have been edited by Sir Charles Rogers (1871; 2nd ed.

Azalea

1884). The two songs, 'I do confess thou'rt smooth and fair,' and the early 'Auld Lang Syne,' printed in Watson's Collection (1707), have been attributed to Ayton, on questionable grounds. See Memoir prefixed to edition of 1871.

Aytoun, WILLIAM EDMONDSTOUNE (1813-65), Scottish poet, was born in Edinburgh. In 1845 he became professor of rhetoric in the university. He married a daughter of Professor Wilson (Christopher North) in 1849, and in 1852 was appointed sheriff of Orkney and Shetland. He died at Blackhills, near Elgin. Aytoun, who was a staunch Jacobite, is best known for his Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers (1848) and the Bon Gaultier Ballads (1855), the latter written in conjunction with Sir Theodore Martin. His tragedy Firmilian (1854) was written as a parody of the 'spasmodic' school of poetry, represented by Sydney Dobell and Alexander Smith. His other works include Poland, Homer, and other Poems (1830); Bothwell, a poem (1856); a collec tion of the Ballads of Scotland (1858); a translation of Poems and Ballads of Goethe, in conjunction with Sir Theodore Martin (1858); Norman Sinclair, a novel (1861). See Life of Aytoun (1867), by Sir Theodore Martin; Pollok and Aytoun (Famous Scots Series), by Rosaline Masson (1898).

Ayuntamiento, the Spanish town council, of which the alcalde is chairman. Instituted in Roman times, the alcaldes acquired great political and municipal authority, which they gradually lost under the Bourbons, but from 1812 to 1843 were partially restored. In 1870 the alcaldes were deprived of their political powers, and confined to the ordinary municipal administration.

Ayuthia, tn., Siam, built principally on piles, on the 1. bk. of the Menam, 42 m. by rail N. of Bangkok, was the first capital (from the middle of the 14th century to 1767) of the present Siamese people. It was taken by the Burmese in 1767 after a two years' siege. Pop. about 50,000.

Azalea, a genus of the order Ericaceæ, differing from the rhododendron in having only five stamens and a funnel-shaped corolla. The hardy azaleas are all deciduous, and came from N. America and S. Europe. The hybrids are often called Ghent azaleas, from the place where their varieties were first cultivated. The beautiful Asiatic azaleas (A. Indica) are usually tender, are grown in greenhouses, and have many hybrids. The commonest azaleas in the northern United States are A. nudiflora, the wild honeysuckle, or pinxter flowers, and the white azalea, or swamp honeysuckle (A. viscosa). The