Acupressure

are to deal with statistics, deduce therefrom rates of mortality, and, by combining these with rates of interest, to calculate premiums for all kinds of insurances; also to estimate the liability of the company under its contracts, and advise what sum is required to meet these, how much may be safely regarded as surplus, and in what manner this surplus may be divided among the policy-holders as bonus; and generally to perform calculations of all kinds, and advise on all questions of accounting and finance. He has also, as a rule, to deal with many legal questions; and should have a certain amount of medical knowledge, in order to understand and benefit fully by the advice of the company's medical officer as to the acceptance or rejection of lives proposed for insurance. Though consulting actuaries were formerly deemed sufficient for the work of small companies, the growth of insurance business now necessitates a regularly-appointed actuary, with fully-qualified assistants on the staff of most companies. Many actuaries, in addition to holding a permanent appointment, undertake a certain amount of private work, and add considably to their incomes by their consulting practice. International congresses of actuaries have been held at Brussels in 1895, at London in 1898, at Paris in 1900, and at New York in 1903, one of the most important results of these congresses being the adoption of a uniform system of notation for all countries.

Acupressure, a method of closing a blood-vessel devised by Sir J. Y. Simpson (1859), who passed needle under the tissues and tied it in such a way as to press upon the artery. It is now almost obsolete.

Acupuncture, the insertion of needles into the body to a depth of one or two inches, generally until they pierce a nerve, where they are left for half an hour, to relieve lumbago and sciatica. It has been a specific surgical operation of the Chinese from very early times.

A.D., Anno Domini in the year of our Lord-the chronological era now universally used in Christian countries, beginning with the supposed date of the birth of Christ.

Ada, tn., N. Hungary, on the r. bk. of the Theiss, some 8 m. s. of Zenta. Cattle, fish, and cereals. Pop. (1900) 12,104.

Ada-Bazar ('island-bazaar'), tn., Anatolia, Asia Minor, on the Sakaria, 24 m. E. of Ismid; silk, tobacco, and walnut wood. AdaBazar stn. (5 m.), on Anatolian Ry. Seat of an Armenian bishopric. Pop. 18,000 (Moslems, 10,000; Christians, 8,000).

Adagio (It.), as a time indication in music, signifies that the

56

movement should be played slowly and expressively. The word is also used as the title of a piece of music, or as the name of a movement in a symphony or sonata, etc.

Adair, JAMES, a trader among the Chickasaw and Cherokee Indians of North America from about 1735 to about 1775. He is remembered as the author of a book, The History of the American Indians (1775), in which he gives a valuable account of Indian customs and of the relations which subsisted between the traders and the Indians. About half of the book is devoted to 'arguments,' twenty-three in number, to prove the Jewish origin of the Indian race.

Adair, JOHN (1759-1840), American general, born in Chester co., S. C., served in the war of the Revolution, and took part in the Indian war as major of militia. In Nov., 1792, he was defeated at Fort St. Clair, O., by the Miami chief, Little Turtle. In the War of 1812, he fought in the battle of New Orleans in command of a body of Kentucky militia. In 1805-06, he was U. S. Senator from Ky., and in 1831-33 was a representative from that state. In 1820-24 he was governor of Kentucky.

Adalbert (c. 1000-1072), German ecclesiastic; appointed archbishop of Bremen and Hamburg in 1043 by the Emperor Henry III. Over his successor, Henry IV., he exercised such influence as to be the virtual ruler of the empire. He introduced Christianity among the Wends, and endeavored, ineffectually, to found an independent patriarchate in the north. See Dannonberg's Adalbert (1877).

Adalbert, ST. (1.) An early English saint (c. 700), probably a grandson of Oswald, king of Deira. He is supposed to have been the first archbishop of Utrecht. (2.) 'The Apostle of Prussia'; became bishop of Prague, his native place, in 982; devoted himself to missionary work in N. Germany and Poland. He was murdered (997) in Pomerania while preaching to the Prussians. In 1880 his bones were found in a vault at Prague, and were reburied in the cathedral.

Adalia, or ANTALIA (anc. Attalia, founded by Attalus II.; the Satalia of the middle ages), a port of Anatolia, Asia Minor, at the head of the Gulf of Adalia. Exports timber, horses, cattle, and grain. Total trade value amounts to over $1,250,000 annually. Pop. 30,000 (Moslems, 24,000; Christians, 6,000).

Adam and Eve, the first human pair, are represented in the wellknown story (see Gen. 1 ff.) as having been created by God and placed in the garden of Eden, where they lived in a state of in

Adam and Eve

nocence until the fall. To obtain an adequate view of the relations and implications of this biblical story, it must be subjected to literary analysis. It is now generally conceded that the narrative is a combination of two accounts of the creation of man. (See HEXATEUCH.) The greater and

the

more picturesque portion, from ch. 2:46 onwards, is attributed to a writer distinguished as J (i.e. the Jahvist); while ch. 1-2: 4a is assigned to P (i.e. the Priestly Code). The latter always speaks of the Deity as Elohim (God), while the former uses Yahweh; the use of the combination Yahweh-Elohim (the LORD God), in J's account, being explained on the hypothesis that some later compiler or editor added Elohim to Yahweh, in order to make the transition less abrupt. But, apart from this, and from other marked differences of form and style, the two writers diverge considerably in regard to the substance of the story. P speaks of man (Heb. 'adam) as having been created on the same (sixth) day as the animals: Elohim makes him in His own image, a male and a female (i.e. as a species); He blesses him, and gives him dominion over all other created things. J's narrative is much more detailed: it tells how Yahweh (-Elohim) formed the man (ha-'adam), placed him in Eden, and subsequently fashioned the woman out of a rib taken from the man's side. Both accounts, however, agree in representing man as the crown of creation, and imply that he possesses a community of nature with God, and a capacity for fellowship with Him. In P there is nothing corresponding to J's account of the serpent, the fall, or the expulsion from paradise, the former writer's more concise and abstract representa tion being (though it stands first) a product of later theological and philosophical reflection.

Origin of the Paradise Story.It is naturally upon J's account, not P's, that the interest centres. The story of the garden of Eden, having been taken as the historical basis of the doctrine of sin, has become in consequence the objective of the most trenchant attacks from the side of modern science. Before proceeding to consider these attacks, or the place of the fall in theology, let us ask what, if any, light is thrown upon the narrative by (1) philology, and (2) the study of comparative religion. (1.) The supposed proper name Adam is identical with the Hebrew word 'adam, meaning 'man.' In the English version of the Old Testament, 'Adam' is used in passages where the generic term, 'the man,' would be undoubtedly more accurate. In some instances the name seems to waver between the

Adam and Eve

proper and the generic usage; but there are indubitable instances of each-e.g. Adam' in Gen. 5:3-5, 'the man' in ch. 2 generally. The question then is, whether the common name became specialized into the proper (because the first man was necessarily the man), or whether the proper name was of independent origin, and merely happens to coincide with the common. Attempts to prove the latter alternative have decidedly failed to carry conviction. But since there exists the Assyrian adma, meaning 'child' (i.e. 'one made [by God'), and since, according to Sayce, adam is the common Baby

57

from the cuneiform inscriptions any narrative sufficiently resembling the biblical account to be deemed the source of, or even a fair parallel to, the latter. Doubtless there are points of similarity betw.en Gen. 2 ff. and certain elements in Babylonian mythology-e.g. the garden with its four rivers finds a parallel in the Babylonian isle of the blessed, which also has four streams, and the tree of life may be compared with the herb of life which grew on the island-so there are good reasons for doubting that the four rivers and the tree of life (not tree of knowledge) are original to J.

Adam and Eve

parallels and analogies were much more striking than they really are, the literature of Babylonia and Assyria has furnished as yet nothing to be compared, for richness of coloring or detail, with the paradise story of J. Nor have researches into other literatures brought to light any but obviously fortuitous resemblances to the biblical narrative.

The Writer's own Purpose. It remains to inquire what the writer intended by his own narrative. Did he imagine that he was writing actual history? or shall we credit him with constructing, a skilful allegory, or merely a pic

lonian word for 'man,' we may safely conclude that adam was originally a generic term that subsequently (perhaps through a misunderstanding) became a proper name. J's narrative employs the word in the sense of 'man,' or 'the man' as opposed to 'the woman.' Eve (Heb. Havvah) is, as the narrator (or editor) suggests in Gen. 3:20, connected with the Semitic root ch-v-h, to live,' and means 'life,' or the 'living one.' It is unquestionably used as a proper name, and may, in a somewhat changed form, be a reminiscence of the original or of some other legend. (2.) It has been supposed that the paradise story of Gen. 2 ff. is of Babylonian origin; but as yet investigators have not gathered

Then there is a Babylonian sealcylinder which shows a fruit-tree with two human figures and a serpent, and which has been supposed to represent the temptation; but this theory is now abandoned (see Queen's Printers' Aids to Students of Bible, Tablet 28, and notes by Sayce). We may mention that the cherubim which, according to Gen. 3:24, guard the gate of paradise correspond to the Babylonian and Assyrian figures of winged genii which protected houses (see Queen's Printers' Aids, Tablets 31-36). Finally, the serpent plays a great part in the mythology, not only of the Babylonians, but of many other peoples. The tree of life is also a widely-disseminated conception. Hence, even if these

turesque story? Perhaps to neither of these questions can be given an unqualified yea or nay. Note, first, that the writer seems to be well aware that his story moves in a world other than the real a world in which, for example, God is hardly more, and the serpent (an actual animal) hardly less, than human; and, again, that the serpent and the tree of knowledge seem decidedly to indicate some older tradition lying at the basis of the narrative as now extant. Taking these in connection with the fact the writer speaks of 'the man' and 'the woman' rather than of 'Adam' and 'Eve,' the most probable conclusion is that he found a popular tradition, richly laden,

Adam and Eve

doubtless, with mythical elements, and idealized it-i.e. retold it so as to make it expressive of moral and spiritual truths. In his hands, therefore, the grosser and more fantastic features of the myth were purged away; and, while preserving its dramatic form and quality, he permeated it with such truths about human nature as his own moral experience and environment suggested. It is these embodied truths or ideas which constitute the real and permanent value of the story, and the psychological insight, the knowledge of human nature, displayed by the writer, must strike every attentive reader as remarkably penetrating and true. To note a few examples: the formation of the woman from the man's rib expresses her subordination to the stronger; her weaker character is also indicated by the serpent's choosing her as the immediate victim of his deceit; the connection between sin and shame and between sin and suffering is implied in the hiding from God and the expulsion from paradise respectively; while the fact that the serpent is not asked to explain its action may signify that the writer did not consider it a moral agent, thus registering a clear distinction between man and even the most 'subtil' of the animals.

Scientific and Theological Relations. If the above be a fair statement of the case, it is plain that the objections of modern science to the paradise story of man's creation and fall are beside the mark. It follows, further, that discussions about the unity of the human race, and related questions, are entirely out of place in this connection. (See CREATION.) The parallelism between Adam and Christ which Paul draws in Rom. 5, and of which he found suggestions in Jewish contemporary theology, need not be considered as more than didactic, and loses nothing if it be supposed that Adam was, in Paul's view, the typical head and representative of unredeemed human nature, as Christ is of regenerated mankind.

Later Developments.-The story of Adam and Eve has proved a fruitful theme for speculation in many directions. Leaving aside the theories of doctrinal theology as to the effects of the Fall, the story of Adam's creation is retold in the Talmud with much of the mythical grossness and dualism which the writer of Gen. 2 ff. was so careful to exclude. "Thus, Adam is represented as a manwoman of monstrous size, a terror to the angels. Having cast him into a sleep, God took parts of all his members, which, when scattered abroad, developed into human beings. Again, Adam's first wife was Lilith-the word

58

occurs in Isa. 34:14; 'night-monster, as in R.V.; harpy,' 'suc cuba'-who, becoming the mother of demons, flew away. Her place was taken by Eve, created from a rib. Adam was afterwards tempted by an envious seraph, Sammael, and, in consequence of his sin, driven forth to wander up and down in the earth. The Koran tells the story with other mythical variations. Also, in several of the Gnostic systems Adam occupies an important place, being made the earthly representative of the Demiurge. Apocryphal literature is rich in themes drawn from Adam and Eve: the lost Gnostic works Revelations of Adam, Penitence of Adam, and on the Daughters of Adam; The Ethiopic Book of Adam (English trans. by Malan, 1882); Testament of Adam (in Journal Asiatique, 1853). Finally ought to be mentioned the fact that the beautiful garden, and the innocence and, later, the tragic experiences of its occupants have proved fruitful themes for pictorial and literary treatment-e.g. Michael Angelo's beautiful fresco in the Sistine Chapel of the Vatican, and Milton's Paradise Lost. For literature, see GENESIS.

Adam-and-Eve. An orchid of the monotypic American genus A plectrum. It has a single leaf, raceme of brown and yellow flowers, and a corm, to which is usually attached one or more of preceding years. Also called putty-root.

a

true

Adam DE LA HALLE (1240-88), called 'Le Bossu d'Arras' (Hunchback of Arras), author of Le Jeu de Robin et de Marion, the oldest French dramatic pastoral, or primitive comic opera, was trouvère of Arras in Picardy, who found his way to the court of Charles of Anjou at Naples, where his piece was played in 1283. From another of his works, Le Jeu de la Feuillée (1262), a medieval medley of fantasy and satire, we glean hints of his early life. In 1282 he followed Robert II. of Artois to Italy. A complete edition of his works was published by Coussemaker (1879); there is an edition of Le Jeu de Robin et de Marion by E. Langlois (1896). See also Petit de Julleville's Les Comédiens au Moyen Age (1885), Strong and Barnett's Hist. Reader of Early French (1901), etc.

of

Adam OF BREMEN (d. ? 1076), born in Upper Saxony, missionary, traveller, and canon Bremen, is chiefly remembered by his historical and geographical writings, relating to N.W. Europe during the first millennium of the Christian era. His principal work, Gesta Pontificum Hammenburgensium, was edited by Lappenburg as vol. vii. of the Monumenta Germanica. The last part contains this passage referring to America: Besides this he (the

Adam

king of Denmark) told of still another island that had been found by many in that ocean (the Atlantic). It is called Wineland, because vines spring up there spontaneously, producing excellent wine. I mention this confidently, for I have learned from no fabu

lous rumor, but through definite information from Danes, that crops also grow there in abundance without having been sown.' There is a third edition of the German translation, by Laurent, Die Geschichtschreiber der Deutschen Vorzeit (1893).

Adam, ADOLPHE CHARLES (1803-56), French musical composer, chiefly of comic opera, born and died at Paris. The Postillon de Longjumeau (1836) and the ballet Giselle (1841) were his most popular works. See his autobiog raphy and souvenirs (1860), and Pouzin's Adolphe Adam, etc. (1876).

Adam, MADAME (JULIETTE) EDMOND (1836), French writer and editor, was born at Verberie, department of Oise, best known by the name of her second husband, Edmond Adam, prefect of police and life senator (d. 1877). Under the name of her first husband. 'Messine,' she published (1858) her Idées Antiproudhoniennes sur P'Amour, la Femme et le Mariage; and thereafter, as 'Juliette Lamber,' Mon Village (1860), and other works. In 1879 she founded La Nouvelle Revue, in which appeared her various studies of European society, La Société de Paris, La Sainte Russie, etc., written under the pseudonym 'Paul Vasili.'

Adam, LAMBERT SIGISBERT (1700-59), French sculptor, was born at Nancy. In 1723 he gained the Prix de Rome. He became a member of the Academy in 1737, and a professor in 1744. His works, which are chiefly symbolic, adorned the gardens of St. Cloud and Versailles, and the Château de Choisy. In 1754 he published a Recueil de Sculptures antiques, taken from examples discovered at Rome.

Adam, ROBERT (1728-92), Scotch architect, son of William Adam (d. 1748), also an architect; was born at Kirkcaldy. In 1754 he visited Italy with Clérisseau, and going to Dalmatia made studies of Diocletian's ruined palace at Spalato (see his Ruins of the Palace of Diocletian, 1764). He and his brother James built the Register House and the Univer sity at Edinburgh; the screen to the Admiralty Office, and Lansdowne House in Berkeley Square, London; and Lord Mansfield's mansion, near Hempstead. Rob ert is buried in Westminster Abbey. They published Works in Architecture (1773-8), to which a posthumous volume was added in

Adam

1822. See Batsford's Architecture of R. and J. Adam (1880).

Adam, WILLIAM, of BlairAdam (1751-1839), nephew of Robert Adam; lawyer, politician, and friend of Sir Walter Scott. Entered Parliament (1774); was counsel in impeachment of Warren Hastings, and defended Viscount Melville (Lord Dundas); lord commissioner of the Scottish Jury Court (1816).

Adamant (Gr. 'invincible') does not refer to any mineral in particular, but is used rhetorically to signify a substance of incomparable hardness. It has been identified with the lodestone, emery stone, and the diamond.

Adamawa, a Central African state, part of northern Nigeria and of German Kamerun. Area, c. 100,000 sq. m. The central and northern part is a block land, rising to 4,250 to 6,500 ft. East of this the country is occupied partly by isolated groups of mountains, partly by undulating plains. The principal river is the Benue. Capital, Yola. The mean ann. temp. is 76°. Rain begins in June, and is very frequent in July and August, accompanied by heavy thunderstorms. The dry northeast wind (Harmattan) blows from November to May. Arabs, Kanuri, Haussa, and Yoruba also dwell in Adamawa. Islamism is the dominant religion; the masses are pagan. Gum-arabic, rubber, ivory, skins, kola nuts and a few slaves are exported in exchange for cotton cloth, silk, copper, salt, suiphur, and beads. Cotton, indigo, and henna, as well as cereals and vegetables, are cultivated. The ruler is a native sultan. The territory of Adamawa has been divided by treaties between Britain, Germany, and France, without regard to natural boundaries or tribal divisions. See Passarge's Adamawa (1895).

Ada mites, an Antinomian Gnostic sect in N. Africa in the 2nd century, who professed to return to the innocence of Eden, abstained from marriage, and rejected clothing. The doctrine reappeared during the reign of Henry V. (A.D. 1106-1121) in an extreme form, alleging fornication to be harmless; again under Charles V. (A.D. 1364-80) in Dauphiné and Savoy; among a section of the Brethren of the Free Spirit, or Beghards, of the 14th century, some of whom lived naked and had wives in common; among a section of the Bohemian Taborites, who were cut to pieces by Ziska, leader of the Hussites (1421); and in 1848-9 there was a small sect in Austria, the nocturnal meetings of which were attended without clothing. See Lenfant, Histoire de la Guerre des Hussites (1731).

Adamnan (c. 625-704), Irish

59

saint, and abbot of Iona (Hii)ninth in the succession of that office from Columba, whose life he is credited with having writtenwas born in Donegal, a scion, like his great predecessor, of the powerful local tribe of the Neills or O'Donnells (the clan Domhnaill). In 679 he was appointed abbot of Iona. In 686 Adamnan came to the court of Northumbria to beg for the release of certain Irish captives, and remained with King Aldfrith for a time. On completing his work, De Locis Sanctis, he presented it to Aldfrith. This book (subsequently reproduced by Bede in an abridged form) is of note as containing one of the first Western accounts of Palestine. At the National Assembly of Tara in 692 there was enacted the 'Law of Adamnan,' or 'Law of the Innocents,' which freed Irish women from compulsory military service. Adamnan afterwards visited Ireland once again before his death at Iona in 704, Sept. 23, the day whose saint he is in the older Irish calendars. The Latin Life of Columba, now generally accepted as Adamnan's, is almost the only record outside Bede's History of one of the most attractive portions of the life of the early church in Scotland. Although the Vita Columba was not printed before 1601 (by Canisius, in Lectiones Antique, vol. i. pp. 674 et seq.), many editions have appeared since. The latest is that of Fowler (Ox. 1895). The work De Locis Sanctis owes its first publication (by Gretser, 1619) indirectly to Casaubon. There have been later editions-Paris (1672), and Ratisbon (1734). Adamnan also appears as a participant in one of those extraordinary and abundant mediæval Irish saints' visions whose general scheme grotesquely prefigures Dante's. There is a 12th century MS. of this, but this cannot be ascribed to Adamnan himself. O'Donovan, in his Irish Grammar (1845), printed portions of a 14th century variant of the legend. See Historians of Scotland, vol. vi. (1874); H. Cotton's Fasti Ecclesiæ Hibernica (1849); A. P. Forbes's Kalendars of Scottish Saints (1872); Montalembert's Les Moines d'Occident (1866), Eng. trans. by Mrs. Oliphant (1867).

Adams. (1.) Tn., Berkshire co., Mass., on the so. br. of the Hoosack and the Pittsfield br. of the B. & A. R. R., 16 m. N. of Pittsfield. There are paper, cotton and woollen mills, machine shops, and shirt shops. Greylock Mt. (q.v.) is in the township, which includes the villages of Maple Grove, Renfrew, and Zvlonite. Pop. (1910) 13,026, (2.) Tn., Jefferson co., N. Y., on the Rome, Watertown and Ogdensburgh R. R., 12 m. s.s.w. of

Adams

Watertown. It contains flour mills and manufactures of wagons, and canned goods. Pop. (1910) 3,128.

Adams, MT., in the Presidential Range in New Hampshire, c. 4 m. N. by w. of Mt. Washington, to which it is second of the range in height. (5,805 ft.)

Adams, ABIGAIL SMITH (17441818), wife of John Adams and mother of John Quincy Adams, was born of Puritan stock at Weymouth, Mass. In 1764 she married John Adams, and in the years 1785-88 accompanied her husband, when the latter was first American minister at the Court of St. James. Her letters, which were collected and published in 1840 by her grandson, Charles Francis Adams, are delightful reading, especially in the glimpses they afford of eighteenth century

manners.

Adams, ALVIN (1804-77), founder of the Adams Express Company, was born at Andover, Vt. He organized in 1841 a shipping company between Boston and New York, which afterward developed into the company that now bears his name.

Adams, BROOKS (1848), American author, son of Charles Francis Adams, was born at Quincy, Mass., and educated at Washington, and in Europe, and also at Harvard Univ. He subsequently studied at Harvard

Law School and until 1881 practised law, after which he devoted himself to literature. He has published The Emancipation of Massachusetts (1887), The Law of Civilization and Decay, America's Economic Supremacy (1900), and The New Empire.

Adams, CHARLES FOLLEN (1842), American writer of humorous verse in German dialect, a native of Dorchester, Mass. His chief collections are entitled Dialect Ballads (1887) and Leedle Yawcob Strauss and Other Poems (1878).

Adams, CHARLES FRANCIS (1807-86), American diplomatist, son of John Quincy Adams, was born in Boston, Mass. His childhood was spent in Russia, his father having become U. S. minister to that country in 1809, and in England, where he attended school. In 1825 he graduated at Harvard. He then studied law under Daniel Webster; spent several years in private study, in writing for the North American Review, and in managing the business affairs of his father, then absorbed by his duties as a member of Congress; was a member of the Mass. General Court (1840-5), and edited the Boston Whig (1846-8). An ardent onponent of slavery, he presided in 1848 over the national Free Soil Convention, and was the Free Soil candidate for vice-president. He

Adams

subsequently joined the Repub. Party, and in 1859-61 was a prominent Repub. representative in Congress. From 1861 to 1868, during the Civil War period, he represented the U. S. at London, where he performed his duties with such consummate diplomatic ablity and bore himself with such dignity through the trials incident to his position as to win universal praise. He was later (1871-2) a member of the Geneva Court of Arbitration, which adjusted the difficulties between the U. S. and Great Britain growing out of the depredations of British-aided Confederate vessels, particularly the Alabama, on the maritime commerce of the U. S. He edited the Works of John Adams (10 vols., 1850-6) and the Diary of John Qunicy Adams (12 vols., 1874-7). See the biography by his son, C. F. Adams, Jr. (1900).

Adams, CHARLES FRANCIS, JR. (1835), American lawyer, politician, and man of letters, son of Charles Francis Adams (180786), was born in Boston, and educated at Harvard. He was admitted to the Mass. bar in 1857. During the Civil War he served as a cavalry officer, and reached the rank of brevet brigadier-general. Resuming the practice of his profession at Boston, Mr. Adams made a specialty of railroad law, and in 1868 became a railroad commissioner of Mass. In 188490 he was president of the Union Pacific R. R. His works include Three Episodes of Massachusetts History (1892); Railroads, Their Origin and Problems (1878); Notes on Railway Accidents (1879), and (with his brother, Henry Adams) Chapters of Erie (1871).

Adams, CHARLES KENDALL (1835-1902), American educator and historian, was born at Derby, Vt., educated at the Univ. of Mich., and in France and Germany. From 1863 to 1867 he was assistant professor of history at Ann Arbor, in 1867-85 full professor. In 1881-85 he was professor of history at Cornell Univ., of which he was president in 188592, and later of the Univ. of Wisconsin. He wrote Democracy and Monarchy in France (1872), Manual of Historical Literature (1882), Christopher Columbus, his Life and Work (1892).

Adams, CYRUS CORNELIUS (1849), American geographer, born in Naperville, Ill., and graduated at the University of Chicago, 1876. He became a writer on geographical topics on New York Sun, 1884; member editorial staff of American Geographical Society in 1904; first president of the department of geography in the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences; was a popular lecturer on geographical subjects. Werks in

60

clude Commercial Geography for High Schools (1901); Elementary Commercial Geography (1902); David Livingstone, African Development (1902).

Adams, EDWIN (1834-77), American actor, born at Medford, Mass. He made his début at Boston, in 1853, in the Hunchback of Sheridan Knowles; and, fourteen years later, at Booth's Theatre, New York, he successfully appeared in the roles of Mercutio and Iago, Claude Melnotte and Enoch Arden.

Adams, HANNAH (1755-1832), American author, was born at Medfield, Mass. Her books, which are among the very earliest to be written by an American woman, include Views of Religious Opinions (1784), History of New England (1799), and a History of the Jews (1812).

re

Adams, HENRY (1838), Ameriican historian, was born in Boston, Mass., the third son of Charles Francis Adams. Educated at Harvard College, he was assistant professor of history there in 1870-77. In 1875-76 he edited The North American Review. His chief work is his ninevolume History of the United States, from 1801-1817, a markably able and candid history of that period, much of the material for which was gathered from original English, French, and Spanish sources. His other publications include Essays on Anglo-Saxon Law (1876), Documents relating to New England Federalism (1877), Albert Gallatin, and Writings of Albert Gallatin (1879), John Randolph (1882), in the American Statesmen series, and a volume of Historical Essays (1871).

Adams, HENRY CARTER (1851), American economist and statistician, was born at Davenport, Iowa, and educated at Iowa College and at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. He was successively a lecturer at his alma mater, an assistant professor at Cornell University, and a professor at Ann Arbor; he has also acted as statistician to the Interstate Commerce Commission, and published valuable reports on the statistics of the U. S. Railroads. His other published works embrace Outlines of Lectures Upon Political Economy (1881), Public Debt (1887), Taxation in the United States 1789-1816 (1884), Relations of the State to Industrial Action (1887), and Relation of American Municipalities to QuasiPublic Works (1889-91).

Adams, HERBERT BAXTER (1850-1901), American educator and historian, was born near Amherst, Mass., where, and also at Heidelberg, Germany, he was educated. In 1876 he was ap

Adams

pointed Fellow of History at the Johns Hopkins University, and afterward was professor of history there, 1891-1901. He was also lecturer in history at Smith College and at Chautauqua. He took much interest in university extension, and was one of the founders of the American Historical Association and its first secretary. His books include The College of William and Mary, The Study of History in American Colleges and Universities, Maryland's Influence in Founding a National Commonwealth, Thomas Jefferson and the University of Virginia, and a History of the United States Constitution.

Adams, ISAAC (1803-83), American inventor, born at Rochester, N. H., and began his career as a cotton factory operative. In 1824 he entered a Boston machine shop, and, four years afterward, invented the printing press with which his name is associated. In 1840 he served as Senator in the Massachusetts Legislature.

Adams, JOHN (1735-1826), the second president of the United States, born in that part of Braintree, Mass., now known as Quincy, on Oct. 30, 1735, the son of a fairly well-to-do farmer (d. 1760) of the same name. He graduated at Harvard in 1755, and was designed for the ministry, but his theological views being heterodox according to the standard of the time, he studied law, and was admitted to the Mass. bar in 1758. In 1761 he was definitely persuaded to enter upon his course of opposition to the arbitrary acts of the British government by hearing James Otis's celebrated argument against the writs of assistance, concerning which late in life he said, American independence was then and there born.' In 1765, during the excitement aroused by the Stamp Act, he sprang into prominence as the author of the instructions which were sent by the town of Braintree to its representatives in the Mass. General Court, and which were soon adopted by forty other townships in the colony; and in the same year he contributed to the Boston Gazette four vigorous articles directed primarily against the Stamp Act, which were afterwards issued as a pamphlet entitled A Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law (1768). Throughout the period immediately preceding the outbreak of the Revolutionary War, he was one of the most influential leaders of the Whig or Patriot Party in Mass., but, as compared with some of his associates, he was conservative, and he had the courage to act as counsel for the British soldiers tried for murder