Bartholomew

1891 he has exhibited in the same place sculptures, the best being a Girl Weeping (1892), and Girl Praying (1894). In 1899 his impressive series of sculptures, Monuments to the Dead, was bought by the city of Paris and placed in the Père-la-Chaise cemetery.

Bartholomew (son of Talmai), one of the twelve disciples of Jesus, frequently, though not conclusively, identified with Nathanael. In the lists of apostles he is always associated with Philip. The later accounts of his reaching in India, Armenia, Egypt, etc., and the various stories of his martyrdom, are wholly untrustworthy.

Bartholomew Bayou, riv. rising in Jefferson co., Ark., and after a circuitous course of 275 m. discharging into the Ouachita R., La. It is navigable for most of its length.

Bartholomew, EDWARD SHEFFIELD (1822-58), American sculptor, who studied at Rome. His .nost famous statues are Blind Homer led by his Daughter, Gany mede and the Eagle, and The Repentant Eve. The Wadsworth Gallery, at Hartford, Conn., has a large collection of his works. He died at Naples. See Leader Scott's Sculpture: Renaissance and Modern (1886).

Bartholomew Fair, an Engish market held annually, from 1133 to 1855, in W. Smithfield, London, on the festival of St. Bartholomew (Aug. 24, old style). Originally connected with the church, miracle plays and mysteries were represented, and in early times it was the principal cloth fair in England-leather, pewter, and cattle being also extensively sold. Shows of all kinds attracted large crowds, till, in 1855, the fair was abolished as a nuisance, after having been held since 1840 at Islington. See Ben Jonson's comedy of this name, and H. Morley's Memoirs of Bar tholomew Fair (1859).

Bartholomew, MASSACRE OF ST., the massacre of the Huguenots, which began at Paris on St. Bartholomew's Day, Aug. 24, 1572. The atrocities in Paris, inaugurated by the murder of Coligny and Téligny, reached Orleans (Aug. 27), Lyons (Aug. 30), and Rouen (Sept. 17). The total number of those massacred is stated variously by different authorities at between 2,000 and 100,000. Gregory XIII. celebrated the massacre with a Te Deum and a specially-struck medal. Many historians claim that this action on the part of the Pope was due to the fact that in the account of the affair sent immediately to Rome by Catherine de Medici, it was represented as a narrow escape of the French King and his mother from a murderous conspiracy on the part of the Hugue

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nots. See H. Baumgarten's Vor der Bartholomäusnacht (1882); H. White's Mass. of St. Bartholomew (1867).

Bartholomew's (St.) Hospital, Smithfield, London, founded in 1123 by Rahere, also founder and prior of the adjoining priory, the church of which is now known as St. Bartholomew the Great. It was made a sanctuary by Edward II.; but both hospital and priory were dissolved by Henry VIII., who refounded the hospital in

1546. It was rebuilt in 1729. Attached are a medical school, founded in 1843, and a Convalescent Home at Swanley, Kent.

Bartizan, a small overhanging turret, with loopholes and embrasures, projecting from an angle of tower or wall: a characteristic feature of the so-called Scottishbaronial style of architecture.

Bartlett, SIR ELLIS ASHMEAD (1849-1902), British politician, son of the Rev. Ellis Bartlett, of Plymouth, Mass., was born at Brooklyn, N. Y. He was called to the bar (1877); became M.P. for Eye (1880), and for Ecclesall Division, Sheffield (18851902); and served as civil lord of the Admiralty (1885-92). He was knighted in 1892. A Conservative and Russophobe, he was the champion of the Sultan of Turkey in the House of Commons. In 1897 he was captured by a Greek warship as a suspected spy. He published in the same year The Battlefields of Thessaly.

Bartlett, HOMER NEWTON (1845), American composer, was born at Olive, N. Y., and studied under leading masters. He made his permanent residence in New York city, where he gave instruction on the organ, was organist of the Madison Avenue Baptist Church, and president of the Manuscript Society. His vocal and instrumental compositions, which are very numerous, inIclude Concert Polka; Toccata; L'Amour, song; and his cantata, The Last Chieftain.

Bartlett, JOHN (1820-1905), American author, was born at Plymouth, Mass. He was a volunteer paymaster in the U. S. navy in 1862-3, and in 1865-89 was senior member of a wellknown Boston publishing house. He is best known by his Familiar Quotations (1854), an admirable and much-used compilation of selections from standard prose and poetry. His other works include: New Method of Chess Notation (1857); Shakespeare Phrase Book (1882); Catalogue of Books on Angling. Including Ichthyology, Pisciculture, etc. (1882); The Shakespeare Index, The Complete Concordance to Shakespeare's Dramatic Works (1894).

Bartlett, JOHN RUSSELL (1805

Bartlett

86), American author, statesman, and bibliographer, was born at Providence, R. I., and until 1837 was engaged in the banking business, when he removed to New York, and became a successful foreign bookseller. Ile was (1850-3) appointed one of the commissioners for the delimitation of the Mexican frontier. (See his interesting narrative in 3 vols., 1854.) Secretary (1855-72) of R. I., he published the Records of the Colony from 1636 to 1790 (185665). His other publications are: Index to Printed Acts, 17581862 (1863); Progress of Ethnology (1848); Dict. of Americanisms (1850, 4th ed. 1877); and Bibliotheca Amer. (1865-71). He was superintendent of the John Carter Brown Library for several years, and prepared its four-volume catalogue.

Bartlett, JOSIAH (1729-95), American political leader, born in Amesbury, Mass. He became a physician in N. H., and, eagerly espousing the cause of the colonists in the controversies with the British government, was a member of the N. H. Committee of Safety (1775), and of the Continental Congress (1775-6), serving on the committee which drafted the Articles of Confederation and signing the Declaration of Independence. He was subsequently chief justice of N. H. (1782-90), was president of N. H. (1790-2), and was the first governor of the state (1792-4) after the adoption of the Constitution of 1792. See Sanderson, Biography of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence (5 vols. 1828).

Bartlett, PAUL WAYLAND (1865-), American sculptor, was born at New Haven, Conn., and studied at the Ecole des BeauxArts, at Paris. He was a member of the jury of awards at Paris Exposition of 1889 and 1900, and was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honor, 1895. Among his bestknown sculptures are General McClellan (Philadelphia); Lajay ette (Paris); Columbus and Michelangelo (Congressional Library, Washington).

Bartlett, SAMUEL COLCORD (1817-98), American educator, was born at Salisbury, N. H., and graduated (1836) at Dartmouth. He studied for the Congregational ministry and held various pastorates and educational positions until his appointment, 1858, as professor of biblical literature in Chicago Theological Seminary. In 1877 he accepted the presidency of Dartmouth. The account of his trip across the desert of El Tih in 1874, taken with the object of comparing that region with the description in the Bible narrative, is given in From Egypt to Palestine, Observations of a Journey (1879).

Bartlett

Bartlett, WILLIAM FRANCIS (1840-76), American soldier, born in Haverhill, Mass. He gradu ated at Harvard in 1861, and during the Civil War served with marked ability on the Federal side, rising from the rank of private (April 14, 1861) to that of brigadier-general of volunteers (June 20, 1864), and being brevetted major-general of volunteers (Mar. 13, 1865) for 'gallant and meritorious services during the war.' He was taken prisoner at Petersburg (July 30, 1864), and for a short time was confined in Libby Prison, at Richmond, Va. He was particularly distinguished for his bravery in action, and it has been said that in every engagement in which he took part, with the exception of his first at Balls Bluff, he was wounded within an hour from the time the first gun was fired.' See Palfrey, Memoir of William Francis Bartlett (1878).

His

Bartlett, WILLIAM HENRY (1809-54), English artist and author, was born in London and apprenticed to an architect. life was devoted to making drawings of scenes in England, on the continent of Europe, in Palestine, and in the United States and Canada. The greater number have been published, with letterpress by himself. See Beattie's Brief Memoir (1855).

Bartoli, ADOLFO (1833-94), Italian literary historian, born at Fivizzano; held the professorship of literary history at the Florentine Institute of Higher Studies from 1874 till his death. His principal work is the Storia della Letteratura Italiana (7 vols. 1878-89), which remained a fragment, ending with the 14th century. It was the first critical history of Italian literature, though it is now to some extent superseded by the work of Gaspary. He also edited Marco Polo (1859), dealt with the evolution of the Renaissance (1877), and with the predecessors of Boccaccio (1878), and in 1881 published Scenari Inediti della Commedia dell' Arte.

One

Bartoli, TADDEO (1363-1422), Italian painter, born at Siena. He painted frescoes depicting the life of the Virgin, in the cathedrals of Siena, Pisa, Perugia, and Genoa; others are in the municipal palace in Siena (1414). cf his earliest works, The Virgin among the Saints (1390), is now in the Louvre. Among his other works are altar-pieces in the cathedral, Montepulciano (1401); in the Sardi chapel of S. Francesco, Pisa (1395). See Kugler's Schools of Painting in Italy (trans. 1851).

Bartolini, LORENZO (17771850), Italian sculptor, was born at Vornio, near Florence, and came to Paris in 1797. Here the

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bas-relief Cléobis and Biton established his fame. He was a favorite of Napoleon, of whom he executed a bust, and who entrusted him with the establishment of a school of sculpture at Carrara in 1808. Among his many works, the most celebrated are the group of Charity, Hercules and Lichas, Faith in God, and Pyrrhus hurling Astyanax from the Walls of Troy. He also executed busts of Byron, Thiers, and Pius IX. See Schools and Masters of Sculpture (1898).

Bartolommeo DI PAGHOLO DEL FATTORINO, FRA (1475-1517), one of the greatest of Florentine painters, known also as BACCIO DELLA PORTA. Born at Savignano, near Florence, he studied under Cosimo Rosselli and Leonardo da Vinci. Fired by Savona rola's eloquence, he gave up his profession, burned his nude studies in the public square, and finally took the habit of the Dominicans. In 1498-9 he painted the celebrated fresco of the Last Supper in Santa Maria Novella, in Florence, finished in the lower part by Albertinelli. In 1506 Raphael visited Florence, and a strong friendship grew up between_the two artists. In 1514 Fra Bartolommeo went to Rome, and there he painted the figure of St. Peter, and part of a St. Paul finished by Raphael. Fra Bartolommeo's influence on Italian art was fourfold: he preceded Raphael in a scientific system of composition, based on principles of strict symmetry; he combined harmony of tone with brilliancy of color; he elaborated his landscape backgrounds beyond the practice of his contemporaries; and he was the inventor of the lay-figure. His finest work is characterized by calm beauty and adoration. His best work is in Florence and in Lucca (especially the beautiful Madonna and Saints in the cathedral). In the National Gallery, London, a Virgin and Child with St. John is attributed to him. See Leader Scott's Fra Bartolommeo (1880); Vasari's Lives of Italian Painters (1895); Kugler's Schools of Painting in Italy (trans. 1851); and Jameson's Memoirs of Early Italian Painters (1887).

Bartolozzi, FRANCESCO (17281813), Italian engraver, born at Florence; produced a series of engraved portraits for Bottari's Vasari (1756-60). In London (1764) he became engraver to George III. An original R.A. (1769), he executed from Cipriani's design the Academy's diploma, still in use, and gave vogue to stipple engraving. In 1802 he became director of a school of engraving at Lisbon. His works number over seven hundred. Among the best are Clytie and

Barton

Silence, after Annibale Caracci; Virgin and Child, after C. Dolci; Venus, Cupid, and Satyr, after L. Giordano. Among his portraits are Clive and Thurlow. He was the grandfather of Madame Vestris. See A. W. Tuer's Bartolozzi and his Works (2nd ed. 1885), and Clements's Painters, Sculptors, Architects and Engravers (1899).

Barton, ANDREW (d. 1511), was the father of the Scottish navy. He is called Sir Andrew Barton in the popular ballad on his career. His mercantile transactions were considered piracy by the English and Portuguese, though protected generally by Scottish letters of marque. He was shot in a sea fight with the English.

Barton, BERNARD (1784-1849), the 'Quaker poet,' was a native of Carlisle, England. He first engaged in trade, but afterward became a bank clerk at Woodbridge, in Suffolk, where he worked for forty years. His poems (1812, 1818, 1820) are distinguished by pious sentiment, pathos, and tenderness. He is chiefly known, however, as the friend of Charles Lamb. See Letters and Poems (1849; new ed. 1860), edited by his daughter, with a Memoir by Edward FitzGerald.

Barton, CLARA (1830-), American philanthropist, was born at Oxford, Mass. The daughter of a military officer, she devoted herself to the care of the sick and wounded during the Civil War, and to the search for missing men at its close, gaining a national reputation. She worked with the International Red Cross in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1), was the first official president of the American Red Cross (1881), and represented her organization at European conferences, 18841903. Besides work in the Russian famine (1892) and the Armenian massacre (1896), she performed field duties in the Spanish-American War and in the Boer War (1899-1902), as well as constant minor duties in connection with the Red Cross, retiring in 1904. She published reports of her work and History of the Red Cross in Peace and War (1898).

Barton, ELIZABETH (1506-34), the 'Maid of Kent.' A servant at Aldington in Kent, she came out of an illness in a hysteric condition, and, under priestly influ ence, gave herself out (1525) as a prophetess, and delivered, as a revelation, the warning that should Henry VIII. persist in carrying out his divorce from Catherine of Aragon, he would not survive that act seven months. Events falsified her prediction, she confessed the imposture, and, along with six accomplices, was executed at Tyburn See G. Burnet's Hist. of the Ref ormation in England (1737).

Bartow

Bartow, tn., co. seat of Polk co., Fla., on the Plant System of R. Rs. Here are located the Summerlin and the South Florida Military Institutes. There are large phosphate mining and orange-raising interests. Pop. (1910) 2,662.

Bartram, JOHN (1699-1777), American botanist, was born near Derby, Pa. He founded the first botanical garden in the United States, 1728, near Philadelphia, and made many journeys to unexplored regions of North America in search of specimens. He published an account of his Observations (1751) on a visit to the Lake Ontario regions, and was a correspondent of foreign botanists. See Memoirs of John Bartram, by William Bartram.

Bartram, WILLIAM (17391823), American botanist, son of John Bartram, was born near Philadelphia, Pa., and established himself in business in N. C., but soon gave this up to accompany his father on his travels. He settled at Philadelphia, 1771, and was subsequently devoted entirely to botanical and ornithological studies. An account of his travels is given in Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida (1791).

Bartsch, KARL (1832-88), Germanic and Romance scholar, was custodian of the Germanic Museum at Nuremberg (1855), and then occupied the chair of Germanic and Romance philology at Rostock (1858) and at Heidelberg (1871) successively. He edited a number of early German texts, and wrote several treatises on Germanic, of which the most important is the Untersuchungen über das Nibelungenlied (1865); In Romance, his two Provençal Chrestomathies (4th ed. 1882) and the similar work for Old French (5th ed. 1884) have been much used. Indispensable to the student of Provençal is the Grundriss zur Geschichte der prov. Litt. (1872). As a translator he rendered into German, among other works, Burns's songs and ballads (1865), Dante's Commedia in the original metre (1876), and Old French popular songs (1882). His version of the Nibelungenlied reached a second edition in 1880.

Bartsia, in botany, a genus of the order Scrophulariacea. The rare purplish blue bartsia (B. alpina) is found in the arctic regions of America. These plants, like some others of the same order, are semi-parasitic on other plants, into which they send suckers.

Barttelot, MAJOR EDMUND MUSGRAVE (1859-1888), English officer, son of Sir W. Barttelot, distinguished himself in Afghanistan and Egypt: accompanied H. M. Stanley on the expedition for the relief of Emin Pasha, and is

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supposed to have been murdered by Manyema carriers. For a defence against the charges of cruelty brought against him see the Life written by his brother (1890).

Baru, a fluffy, cotton-like fibre obtained from an E. Indian sago palm; used instead of feathers to stuff pillows, and as a substitute for tow in calking boats.

Baruch (blessed'), the friend and amanuensis of Jeremiah. He shared many of the prophet's misfortunes, notably his exile in Egypt, and subsequently, according to Josephus (Antiq., X. ix. 7), in Babylon. Bunsen erroneously identifies Baruch with the 'great unknown' prophetic writer of Isa. 40-66. See Jer. 32, 36, etc.; Cheyne's Jeremiah: his Life and Times (1888); and the two following articles.

Baruch, a book of the Apocrypha, extant in Greek, purporting to have been written in the main by the above. It falls into four parts-(1) ch. 1:1-14, a historical introduction, quite unreliable; (2) 1:15-3:8, confession and prayer of the captives in

Bartsia alpina.

2

1, Pistil; 2, corolla (opened) and stamens.

Babylon, probably from a Hebrew original, and dating from the 3rd century B.C.; (3) 3:9-4: 4, a eulogy of wisdom, addressed to the exiles, from about 70 A.D.; and (4) 4:95:9, odes celebrating the return from captivity. still later. These heterogeneous elements were joined together probably towards the close of the 1st century A.D.

Baryton

Attached to Baruch (as ch. 6) is the Epistle of Jeremy. See Gifford's commentary in Speaker's Apocrypha (1888).

Baruch, THE APOCALYPSE OF, a remarkable work, made known to scholars by the discovery of a Syriac MS. in 1866. The Syriac is evidently translated from the Greek, and the Greek was probably translated from Hebrew. The friend of Jeremiah is made to speak throughout in the first person, and relates the divine disclosures made to him in Jerusalem. The work comes from four or five different hands, probably Pharisees, and assumed its present form about the first quarter of the 2nd Christian century, or a little earlier. It is thus contemporaneous with the New Testament writings, and herein lies the value of the book. See R. H. Charles's Apocalypse of Baruch 1896), and W. J. Deane's Pseudepigrapha, pp. 130-162 (1888).

Barus, CARL HAZARD (1856-), American physicist, was born at Cincinnati, O., and was educated at Columbia and in Germany. He was physicist to the U. S. Geological Survey in 1880-92, professor of meteorology in the U. S. Weather Bureau in 1892-93, and physicist of the Smithsonian Institution in 1893-95, when he took the chair of physics at Brown University. His publications include Experiments with Ionized Air (1901); Structure of the Nucleus (1902); Nucleation of the Atmosphere (1906); Condensation Induced by Nuclei and Ions (1907-8).

Barwood. See CAMWOOD.

Barye, ANTOINE LOUIS (17951875), one of the greatest of French sculptors. He served in the army from 1812 to 1814. For years he fought against poverty and opposition, till recognition of his talent came from the U. S. through his friend Mr. Walters, whose fine art collection at Baltimore contains many of his best bronzes, such as The Orleans Group, The Hunt of the Wild Ox. Barye was unexcelled in illustrating groups of animals in vigorous action, the best example being his Lion Struggling with a Snake (1832). Another notable work is the Lion Resting (1847). Both are in the Tuileries. Barye also, in the specimens on the façade of the new wing of the Louvre (War, Peace, Force, Order), treated the human figure in heroic sculpture with equal mastery. See Brownell's French Art (1892); Gruelle's Notes on the Walters Collection, Baltimore; Brownell's French Art (1892); Ballu's L'Euvre de Barye (1890).

Baryton, or VIOLA DI BARDONE, a stringed instrument, invented in 1700, but not now in use, somewhat resembling the viola da gamba. Leopold Mozart eulogized

Barytone

its beauty of tone, and Haydn, who tried hard to learn it, left 175 compositions for the instrument.

Barytone. See BARITONE.

Bas, or BATZ, a small island in the English Channel, 24 miles from the coast and 15 miles northwest of Morlaix, in the department of Finistère, France. It has a lighthouse at an elevation of 212 feet, 2 forts, and 4 batteries. There are 3 fishing villages. Pop 1,200.

Basalt, certain volcanic or eruptive rocks possess a micro- or cryptocrystalline structure, consisting of crystals embedded in an amorphous or glassy ground mass. This structural form is caused by rapid cooling, since complete crystallization only takes place through very slow cooling. Mineralogically, rocks of this group consist essentially of some form of feldspar, with hornblende or augite and quartz.

According to the relative preponderance of either silicic acid or bases, they are divided into two subgroups-namely, acidic and basic rocks. In the latter class there is a predominance of either hornblende or augite and plagioclase, with a silica content of 40 to 56 per cent. and specific gravity of 2.9 to 3.1. To this class belongs basaltic rock. It is then an igneous rock, made up of augite feldspar (silicate of magnesium, calcium, and iron) and plagioclase feldspar (silicate of calcium and sodium) as essential constituents, with certain accessory minerals, as magnetite (magnetic iron ore), ilmenite (titanium iron oxide), and olivine (silicate of magnesium and iron). Varieties of basalts distinguished by presence of notable quantities of certain silicates are olivíne, leucite, and nepheline basalts.

Basaltic rocks are usually black, dark brown, or greenish black, and vary from a fine-grained to a coarsely crystalline structure, with a tendency to cleave into hexagonal columns. The usual type is of fine grain, and black, due to the presence of magnetite and augite, in which the only mineral recognizable by the eye is the olivine. Basaltic rocks are abundant and widely distributed in those regions which have undergone more recent volcanic disturbances-.e., North Ireland, West Scotland, Western United States, Iceland, India, Africa, and the Hawaiian Islands. A feature of basaltic lava flows is their columnar jointing, which produces the characteristic scenery of the Giant's Causeway and Fingal's Cave in Ireland.

Bascom, FLORENCE, American geologist, daughter of John Bascom (q.v.), was born in Williamstown, Mass. She was graduated at the University of Wisconsin (1882), and pursued post-graduate work at that university and at Johns Hopkins until 1893. She was instructor in geology and petrography at Ohio

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State University (1893-5), lecturer and associate professor (18951906), professor of geology since 1906 at Bryn Mawr College. She acted as geological assistant (18961901), and assistant geologist since 1901, on the United States Survey. She is a fellow of the Geological Society of America. She has written numerous bulletins and papers in technical journals, and collaborated on Geologic Folios.

Bascom, JOHN (1827), American educator, was born in Genoa, N. Y. He graduated (1849) at Williams, and studied theology at Andover. From 1855 to 1874 he was professor of rhetoric at Williams; president of the University of Wisconsin from 1874 to 1887, when he resigned. He returned to Williamstown, and gave lectures at the college on sociology and political science. He has written extensively on educational, psychological, and theological subjects, some of his books being Political Economy (1859); Science, Philosophy, and Religion (1871); Growth of Nationality in the United States (1899); God and His Goodness (1901).

Base, in chemistry, includes those hydroxides of metals which neutralize acids by partly or entirely replacing their hydrogens, thereby yielding compounds called salts. When soluble in water, they turn red litmus blue and possess caustic properties. Bases are termed monohydric, dihydric, or trihydric valent or acidic, according to the number of hydroxyl groups present. See ACID; SALTS; SOLUTIONS.

Base, in heraldry, is the lower portion of a shield. Charges borne therein are blazoned in base, and particularly in dexter base, middle base, or sinister base, according as they appear to the right, the centre, or the left.

Baseball, a field game so universally popular in the United States that it is called 'the National Game.' It is claimed to have had its origin in the 'town ball' of the New England States of the thirties. This, however, was played on a square field, instead of a diamond, and the runs were made around four foot posts set in the ground, instead of bases. The Washington Club of New York, organized in 1843, seems to have been the first to use the diamond, and its game was called the New York,' as distinguished from the 'Massachusetts game' of the New England States. The Knickerbocker Baseball Club, in 1845, first formulated a code of rules, and the first match game was played in 1846. In 1850, clubs were organized in Boston and Philadelphia; in 1852, the Gotham Club was formed in New York; in 1854, the Eagle and Empire; and in 1856, the Baltics and Putnams. In 1857 a convention was held, at which delegates were present from sixteen clubs. In 1858 a second conven

Baseball

tion was held, and twenty-five clubs were represented. The National Association of Baseball Players was organized, and held annual conventions thereafter, revising the rules from time to time. The first gate-money series of matches was played at Flushing, L. I., in 1858. The first series of championship games was played in 1858 and 1859 at the Elysian Field, Hoboken, N. J.

In 1860 the Excelsior Club of Brooklyn started on a tour through Western New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, arousing much enthusiasm along the route. Baseball clubs sprang up everywhere in the territory visited.

The Civil War gave baseball a serious setback, but with the close of the war interest revived; and at a convention which assembled in 1865, delegates from thirty clubs were present. Within the ranks of the players a class of trained professionals presently developed, who were greatly in demand. The Forest City Club of Rockford, Ill., seems to have been the first to employ players at regular salaries, although the Cincinnati Red Stockings,' organized in 1868, are generally regarded as the first professional baseball club. In 1869 the 'Red Stockings' played a series of 69 games without meeting defeat, throughout the country east of the Mississippi River. In 1870 they continued their triumphal tour until at the thirtieth game they were defeated by the Atlantics of Brooklyn. Another great impulse was thereby given to baseball, and teams were organized throughout the country. Salaries were raised as a result of competition to secure the star players.

In the seventies, however, baseball fell into the hands of gamblers, and there was grave danger that it would lose its popularity. In an effort at prevention, a convention was held in Louisville, Ky., in 1876, at which stringent rules against bribing of players, betting by them, etc., were passed, the National League of Professional Baseball Clubs was organized, and a circuit of eight clubs formed-Boston, Chicago, Athletics (representing Philadelphia), Mutuals (representing Brooklyn), Hartford, St. Louis, Cincinnati, and Louisville.

In 1882 a rival league was organized under the title of the American Association of Professional Baseball Clubs. It made a strong bid for popular favor by reducing the price of admission to half the prevailing rate. Later in the same year the National League, the American Association, and the Northwestern League met and adopted a tripartite agreement which was afterward extended to a national agreement, and which inIcluded all the reputable organized clubs that desired to become members. The principal object was to

Baseball

provide a central government for professional baseball players.

In 1884, a good deal of bickering and discord led to the revolt of a body of players, who formed the Union Association, which lasted for only one year, however. In 1890 there was another and more formidable revolt of dissatisfied players, who united to form the Players' League. This also lasted but one year. In 1891 the American Association withdrew from the national agreement. A conference held at Indianapolis resulted in the purchase by the National League of four of the American Association clubs, and the absorption of the remaining four as partners. This reorganization was made under the title of 'The National League and American Association of Professional Baseball Clubs,' which became thereafter a ruling influence in the baseball world.

In 1900, the American League, which first started among the Western cities, having entered territory claimed by the National League, a new war followed. It was ended in 1903 by a compact between the two major organizations, whereby a circuit of the principal cities was assigned to each league.

At the close of 1910 there were 49 professional baseball leagues in the United States, embracing over 350 clubs. Including those in minor leagues, there are about 6,000 baseball players in the profession. The salary list of 1910 reached the vast sum of $3,550,000, including $650,000 to players in the two major leagues. The umpires received $180,000, and the travelling expenses were over $750,000. The grand total of expenses was $6,330,000, and the total receipts not less than $7,000,000.

Among the noted professional players of the present day may be named the following: PitchersMathewson, Bender, Ford, Brown, Walsh, Johnson, Young, Donovan, and Coombs. Batsmen Cobb, Wagner, Lajoie, Magee, Speaker, Snodgrass, and Collins. CatchersKling, Bresnahan, Sullivan, Sweeney, First basemen Gibson, and Street.

-Chase and Chance. Second basemen-Lajoie, Collins, and Evers. Third basemen-Devlin, Steinfeldt, and Lord. Shortstops Wagner, Tinker, and Turner. FieldersCobb, Clarke, Speaker, Crawford, Mitchell, and Daniels.

College baseball assumed organization in 1879, when the clubs of Harvard, Princeton, Brown, Amherst, and Dartmouth formed the Intercollegiate Baseball Association. Yale joined in 1880. In 1887 Harvard, Princeton, and Yale joined with Columbia to form the Eastern College League, from which Columbia withdrew in 1888. Other changes followed in the

602A

original Intercollegiate Association; it now exists as the 'Intercollegiate Association of the New England States,' and includes Amherst, Wesleyan, and Williams. The HarvardPrinceton-Yale group still conduct match games, but do not maintain a definite organization.

In recent years 'team play' has come to occupy an important place in baseball. In the older form of the game, it was 'every man for himself.' More hits were made, and fewer runs. In the presentday game, there is displayed much mechanical science in the playing of the individual members, as well as generalship on the part of the manager or captain who directs the team as a whole. Mental characteristics have become of great importance. To muscular development should be added qualities of courage, daring, and skill, combined with perception and judgment gained by experience.

Baseball

Signals are now used universally by professional and college teams. They are usually given from the bench, as they are thus better concealed from the opposing side. They enable the batsman and the base runner to work together for the good of the team as a whole. The desirability of keeping the signals secret from the opposing team leads to their frequent change. For the team in the field the signals are often given by the catcher, who is the only player on that side having a full view of the field at all times. His combination work with the pitcher is also of great importance to the success of his team. The batting order likewise comes in for much study. An approved procedure is to put first a left-handed batter, followed by a bunter, and he by a hard hitter, the weaker batters being placed lower down on the list. A left-handed batter has the advantage of being in the right swing