§326. By the act of 1824, an alien minor may be ad. mitted a citizen at any time after he shall have arrived at the age of twenty-one years, if he shall have resided five years in the United States, including at least three years of his minority, without having made a previous declaration. of his intention to become a citizen. It is sufficient that the declaration be made at the time of his admission; provided that he then declare on oath, and prove to the satis faction of the court, that, for three years next preceding, it has been his intention to become a citizen; and that he comply, in all other respects, with the laws in regard to naturalization.

§ 327. By the act of 1828, an alien who resided in the United States before the 18th June, 1812, and who continues to reside here, need not previously declare his intention to become a citizen; provided that he prove to the satisfaction of the court, that he was residing in the United States before the 18th June, 1812, and that he has continued to reside here; and provided also that his residence be proved by the oath or affidavit of citizens of the United States. If the alien shall have arrived after the peace of 1815, his residence must have been continued for five ycars next preceding his admission, without having been, at any time during the five years, out of the territory of the United States.

§ 328. Children of persons duly naturalized, being minors at that time, shall, if dwelling in the United States, be deemed citizens. And if an alien shall die after his declaration, and before his actual admission, his widow and children shall be deemed citizens.

§329. The other power expressed in this clause of the constitution, is that of establishing uniform bankrupt laws. The word bankrupt is derived from bancus, a bench, and ruptus, broken, in allusion to the benches formerly used by money lenders in Italy, which were broken or destroyed in

what declarations must he make before and at the time of his admis. sion? On what conditions is he then admitted? § 326. On what terms are alien minors admitted? § 327. What are the provisions of the act of 1828? § 328. What in regard to widows and children? 329. What is the meaning of bankrupt, and insolvent and bank.

case of failure. This word generally means an insolvent person, but more strictly, an insolvent merchant. A dis. tinction has been made by some between insolvent laws and bankrupt laws; the latter providing for discharging the debtor from his contracts, the former merely liberating his person from imprisonment.

§ 330. These laws are founded in principles of humanity and justice, being designed for the relief of unfortunate debtors, who could never hope to rise from a state of pov. erty, without a release from their debts; and also for the benefit of creditors, by securing to them the effects of their bankrupt or insolvent debtors. The power to make these laws is with propriety intrusted to congress. The dissimilar and conflicting laws of the different states, and the entire want of them in some states, had caused much inconvenience. Debtors, though discharged from debts in one state, were still liable to prosecution and imprisonment on removing into another state.

§331. As the constitution prohibits the states from pass. ing laws impairing the obligation of contracts, the right of a state to pass insolvent or bankrupt laws is questioned by many, who maintain that such laws impair the obligation of contracts; or that, as the power is given to congress to establish a uniform system of bankruptcy, the states are thereby deprived of the power to make insolvent laws.

§ 332. From decisions which have been made by the supreme court of the United States, it appears, (1.) That a state has no authority to pass an insolvent or bankrupt law, to discharge a debtor from the obligation of a contract made before such law was passed. But if the law existed before a contract was made, it did not, in the sense of the consti. tution, impair the obligation of that contract; because par. ties are presumed to have reference to the existing laws of the country when such contract is made. (2.) That, until congress establish a uniform system of bankruptcy, a state may pass such insolvent laws as do not impair the obligation of contracts. (3.) That a discharge is valid only between

rupt laws? 330. What is the object of these laws? Why is the power to make them given to congress? § 331, 332, 333. What al opinions have been given respecting the right of states to pass

the citizens of the state by which such law was passed; and that a debtor, if he should remove into another state, and there take the benefit of an insolvent law, is not dis. charged from debts contracted before his removal.

§ 333. In view of the judicial decisions on this subject, chancellor Kent observes: "It remains yet to be settled, whether it be lawful for a state to pass an insolvent law, which shall be effectual to discharge the debtor from a debt contracted after the passing of the act, and within the state making the law. The general language of the court would seem to reach even this case; but the facts in the cases decided do not cover this ground, and are not authority to that extent."

334. Congress has heretofore, (April, 1800,) exercised its power to pass bankrupt laws; but the law enacted was repealed in December, 1803. There is no existing law of congress on the subject.

CHAPTER XII.

Money-Weights and Measures.

§335. CONGRESS shall have power, "To coin money, "regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the "standard of weights and measures."—Art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 5.

§ 336. Were each state permitted to coin money and affix to it such value as it pleased, the varying standards established by different states would render trade between the states extremely embarrassing. To produce a uniform standard of value in coin, exclusive power over the currency was given to congress.

§ 337. The word coin, (French,) means a stamp, or money stamped with a legal impression. Coining, until the

insolvent laws? § 334. Is there any law of congress on this subject?

§336. Why is the power to coin money and regulate its value given to congress? $337, 338. What is the meaning of coin?

last two or three centuries, was very imperfectly performed, by placing the blank piece of money between two dies, or steel punches containing the design or figure of the coin, and striking upon the upper one with a hammer. The im perfection of this hammer money was caused by the uncertainty of placing the two dies exactly over each other, and the improbability of a man's being able to strike a blow with such force as to make all parts of the impression equally perfect.

§338. The coining press, or mill, now used, was invented in France. The bars or ingots of gold or silver, after having been cast, are taken out of the moulds, and their surfaces cleaned. They are then flattened by rollers, and reduced to the proper thickness to suit the species of money to be coined. The plates are next cut out into round pieces by a circular steel punch of the size of the coin, which is driven downward by a powerful screw, and passes through a cor. responding circular hole, carrying before it the piece of metal which is punched out. These pieces are brought to the standard weight, if necessary, by filing or rasping the deficient pieces, together with the corners and pieces of the plates, are returned to the melter. The inscription or im pression on the edge is made by rolling the coin, edgewise, between two plates of steel containing the engraved edging. The stamping is performed by pressing the piece with a powerful screw between two steel dies, on which the figure to be impressed is engraved.

§ 339. The place where money is coined by public au. thority, is called the mint. The officers and persons who conduct the business of the mint of the United States, are a director, a treasurer, an assayer, a chief coiner, an engraver, and a melter and refiner. The director, with the approbation of the president of the United States, employs the necessary clerks and workmen, and has the chief management of the business of the mint. The treasurer receives the metals brought to be coined, and gives receipts for them. The assayer receives from the treasurer a sufficient number of grains of every parcel, and assays them. This is a pro.

Describe the coining process. § 339. What is mint? What is the business of the director, treasurer, and assayer? What is alloy ?

cess to ascertain the quantity of gold or silver in the alloy. Alloy is a composition formed by the combination of two or more n.etals. To alloy means to mix a metal of less with one of greater value. The baser metals are used to alloy gold and silver coins, to prevent their loss by wear.

§ 340. The treasurer delivers the assayed metals to the chief coiner, from whom he receives them when struck, and pays or delivers them to the persons to whom they are to be delivered. He also keeps all moneys for the support of the mint, and pays them out upon warrants signed by the director. The chief coiner causes to be coined all metals received by him for that purpose. The engraver sinks and prepares the dies with the proper devices and inscriptions. The melter and refiner takes charge of all copper, or silver and gold bullion delivered out by the treasurer after it has been assayed, and reduces them into bars or ingots fit for the rolling mills. Bullion is uncoined gold or silver in plates, bars, or masses.

§ 341. The proportional value of gold to that of silver coins by law current as money in the United States was formerly as fifteen to one; that is, fifteen pounds of pure silver were equal in value to one pound of pure gold. But in 1834, congress by law changed the proportional and standard values. The present value of gold coins of the United States is as sixteen to one of silver. The value of the eagle of the old coinage is consequently about $10,66; and the new eagle contains a quantity of gold only that was before valued at about $9,38. Foreign gold coins are made lawful, according to their real value, by the same standard with our own. The dollars of Spain, Mexico, and the South American states, are lawful at the same value with our own dollars. The five franc pieces of France are lawful at 93 cents each.

§ 342. Congress shall have power, " To provide for the "punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current "coin of the United States."-Art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 6.

§ 343. The power to coin money would be of little use

§340. What is the business of the chief coiner, engraver, and melter and refiner? What is bullion? § 341. What was formerly, and what is at present, the standard value of coin? § 342, 343. Why is the