with others in the same hands, because a greater amount of value is created.

§ 800. By this division of labor, the actual wants of every member of the community are better supplied than they would be if each should attempt directly to produce or manufacture all the necessaries of life. Every person, engaged in any occupation, wants a portion of the products of other trades or employments. All are equally dependent on each other. Hence it is for their mutual interest to supply each other with those things which they do not produce for themselves. The wants of all may thus be more promptly as well as more cheaply supplied. If the farmer should break his plough or his scythe, he may very soon procure a new instrument from the manufacturer or the merchant; whereas, if his proper business should be suspended until he could supply the place of the broken instrument with his own hands, he must suffer a material loss.

§ 801. Not only is labor rendered more productive by a separation of the different trades, but its productiveness may be still farther increased, by proper economy in the application of labor. For instance, a chair maker does not finish each chair before he begins another. He usually commences by "getting out the stuff," as it is called, for a large number, and preparing it all for the lathe; the pieces are then all turned; next they are all framed together; and lastly the chairs are all painted.

§ 802. But where a number of men labor in the same manufactory, it would be still better economy to assign to each a distinct operation: to one, the preparing of the timber; to another, the turning; to a third, the framing, and so on to the finishing operation. Not only can a greater amount of labor be performed in this manner; but there is also a great saving of capital by this arrangement. If each laborer were to perform all the several operations, each

ive when limited to the business of cultivation. § 800. Are the wants of all persons better supplied by each one's working at one kind of business? Give an example. § 801. By what economy of labor may the productiveness of industry be farther increased? Give an instance. §802. By what subdivision of labor might a still greater amount of products be created? What effect has this arrangement

and cabinet-maker, must needs lose time in going from shop to shop, and from his shops to his fields. And in the transition from one to the other, there is more or less loitering, as the attention is not readily fixed upon a new object.

§ 806. Again, the invention of labor-saving machines, and the improvements which are from time to time made in them, owe their origin, in most instances, to the division of labor. When the attention of a man is kept steadily upon a single object, he will be much more likely to discover some easier mode of attaining it, than when his attention is divided among a number of objects. Persons most skilful in any business, are commonly those who, after a long and steady application to that particular business, have contrived some improvement in the manner of performing it.

§ 807. There is yet another and an important advantage realized from a division of labor. In some kinds of business, many things may be done by persons of little experience, and by women and children, whose labor costs much less than that of experienced adult males. In the manufacture of books, for example, it would not be good economy to employ men exclusively whose labor would cost from one dollar to two dollars a day, when boys may be employed to set and distribute, and to ink the types, and to dry the printed sheets; and females to fold the sheets, and sew them into books; who will perform an equal quantity of labor in these operations, for fifty cents a day. The same economy is practised in the manufacture of cotton and woollen cloths, paper, &c., and to some extent even in agricultural and commercial business.

§ 808. But the division of labor is often limited by una. voidable circumstances. When the demand for any product is small, the highest degree of productiveness cannot be attained by a division of labor. For example; labor in the manufacture of pins is most productive when each of the

ges attend the passing from one kind of business to another? § 806. Are inventions, to any great extent, to be ascribed to the division of labor? How do you account for this? § 807. What other advantage is realized from a division of labor? Give two or three examples of the economy of employing women and children. § 808. Is there limit to the division of labor? Show the effect of a limited de.

eighteen distinct operations is performed by one person. But if the 48,000 pins daily made were more than sufficient to supply the consumers of this article, either the laborers must be idle a part of the time, or a smaller number must be employed in the business. But in the latter case, several operations must be performed by one person; consequently the productiveness of each man's labor would be diminished.

§ 809. In a populous city, one merchant deals exclusively in dry goods, another in hardware, and another in shoes; and not unfrequently in one or two commodities only. But in a country village, the amount sold of any one kind of goods would not furnish employ for an establishment. Hence, in such places, every merchant finds it necessary to trade in all kinds of wares and commodities which are wanted by the inhabitants around him.

§ 810. Again, the division of labor is limited by capital. A manufacturer of small capital cannot give employment to as many laborers as one who possesses a large capital; because the greater the number of workmen employed, the greater must be the supply of raw materials to be manufactured, and the greater also must be the daily expenditures in the wages of laborers. And the division of labor will be still more restricted, if the business be of that kind, the products of which do not bring quick returns. For it is evident, that one who disposes of the products of his labor as soon as they are created, or on short credit, requires less capital than one who could not avail himself of the proceeds of his industry oftener than once a year.

§ 811. If in the manufacture of a coach, there were five distinct operations, a perfect division of labor would require the employment of five workmen. Now if coaches were sold on a credit of six months, and if these five workmen should, within that period, produce carriages to the value of $2,000; a capital of this amount would be necessary to conduct an

mand of products upon the division of labor. § 809. Illustrate this effect in the case of merchants. § 810. Can a person of small capital avail himself of the same degree of benefit from the division of labor, as one of large capital? Why not? § 811. Explain, by example, the advantages of large capital.

establishment of this description, in which the division of labor should be complete. But if the proprietor had a cap. ital of only $1,000, it is evident he could not employ the same number of workmen; some of them must perform several distinct operations; the labor and capital employed would be less productive; and, consequently, the products of this branch of industry must be sold at higher prices.

CHAPTER VII.

Division and Security of Property, an Encouragement to Industry.

§ 812. WITHOUT a division of property, there would be little or no encouragement to industry. By a division of property is meant, that the total amount of the property of a community is divided among its members, so that each has a right to a certain part, which he can call his own, and to which no other person has a right. Without such a division, no man would be induced to lay up or preserve any thing; for men are little disposed to work for what they have no better right to than other men. This is the case with the Indian tribes. The land is held by them in common. No one can call any part of it his own; and no one is stimulated to industry. The highest object of each appears to be, to obtain a hut for his shelter, and the scanty fare on which he subsists from day to day. Hence, in every industrious community, enjoying the comforts of life, there is a division of property.

§ 813. The security of property also, is indispensable to the encouragement of industry. No community will be prosperous, unless its members be protected in the free enjoyment of the fruits of their labor. If what a man produces by his industry might be taken from him by others,

§ 812. What is meant by a division of property? What is its effect upon society? § 813. What evils naturally result from the insecurity