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wealth. Many a mechanic has thus been kept in a state of poverty; while others by an habitual observance of proper care in working up, or saving all the pieces," (to use a common phrase,) have accumulated moderate fortunes in the course of their business.

§ 992. Like economy should be practised in the consump. tion of labor. To secure the faithful performance of all the labor employed, the farmer or mechanic must, as far as possible, personally superintend his own business. Few workmen are as careful of their employer's interest, as he is himself, or as industrious in his absence as in his presence. It is important, also, that the best tools be had, and that they be kept in the best order, and ready for use at all times. Much labor is often lost by the failure of a weak, unsound instrument, or by the use of one that is unwieldy, or out of repair.

993. Hence we see, that a man who would thrive in business, must be frugal in the consumption of capital and labor. What is saved by an economical expenditure of these, reduces, by so much, the cost of the manufacture; and his profits on the capital and labor employed are so much greater. A persevering application of these principles to almost any business, if it do not speedily put a man in the possession of a fortune, will never fail of securing to him at least a comfortable independence.

§ 994. The consumption of value to satisfy the wants and desires of individuals, is called unproductive consumption, in contradistinction to the consumption of value for the purpose of reproduction; and may be considered to include the consumption of whatever is necessary to sustain human life, and render it agreeable. The expenditure of what is necessary to procure the absolute necessaries of life, and a practical education, has been with some degree of propriety called productive consumption; because without them we could either not produce any thing at all, or we could not produce it abundantly. But as no material product is directly

simple labor? § 992. By what management can an employer get the greatest amount of labor from his workmen ? § 993. What will be the effect of an observance of these principles of economy upon a person's prosperity? § 994. What is unproductive consumption?

produced by this consumption, we choose to call it unproductive consumption.

§ 995. A person who has learned economy in the expenditure of capital and labor for reproduction, will not be at a loss in managing the business of unproductive consumption. He will neither purchase too much of a thing at a time, nor purchase what he does not want, simply because it is cheap. And every article will be wholly consumed; that is to say, he will avail himself of all the benefit which it is capable of affording, before its use is dispensed with. And if he indulge in pleasure or amusements of any kind, they will be of a rational and intellectual character.

CHAPTER XXII.

Public Consumption.

§ 996. By recurring to those chapters in different parts of this work, which relate to taxation, duties, &c., it will be seen what are some of the objects of public expenditure, and the necessity of taxation, in order to provide the means of compensating the legislative, executive, and judicial officers of the government, and of promoting various other objects of public utility. Whether the consumption of the national capital be more properly called productive, or unproductive consumption; it is a fact which admits of no dispute, that the expenditure of money beyond what is necessary to secure the services of the best officers, and to promote the general welfare, is a total public loss.

§ 997. The different modes of taxation have been de. scribed in those parts of this work above referred to. Taxes, as we have there observed, are either direct, as when they

995. By what general principles ought a man's household economy to be regulated?

§ 996. Is the needless expenditure of the public money a public loss? 997. What are direct taxes? Indirect taxes? 998, 999.

But

are laid upon the head or property of a person; or indirect, as when they are laid upon articles of consumption. in which of these two modes taxes ought to be levied, is a question on which statesmen and political economists are not agreed.

§ 998. A large portion of the taxes collected in this country, are of the indirect kind. Such are those which are paid into the national treasury: they consist chiefly of duties paid on goods imported. It is objected to this mode of taxation, that the mass of the people do not know the amount of the taxes they pay, when they buy the commodities on which the taxes are imposed. Hence they become careless of expenditure, and are less disposed to watch those who are intrusted with the expenditure of the public

treasure.

§ 999. Another objection to indirect taxation, is, that it is unequal. The poor are obliged either to forego the use of the articles taxed, or to pay as great a portion of the public tax as the rich. Whereas it is contended, that the latter ought to bear a part of the public burthen, proportioned to the relative amount of their property, or to their ability to pay. Taxes are therefore most equal when laid upon

property.

$1000. Taxes laid upon property in proportion to its value, are clearly the most equal; and indirect taxes, so far as they augment the prices of the necessaries of life, with out conveying a corresponding benefit to the consumer, must be in their operation unequal. But if the conclusions which we have drawn from the arguments presented in favor of and against protective duties, and from the operation of the system of protection in this country, are correct, the duties laid upon imports do not operate as taxes to the consumer, at least not to the extent by many supposed. (See Protective Duties.)

§ 1001. In public consumption, the first and immediate

What are the objections which are sometimes made against indirect taxation? Why are they supposed to operate unequally? § 1000. What conclusion have you formed from the arguments given for and against protective duties, in former chapters? § 1001. What is the more immediate object of public consumption? What would be the

object is the compensation of the officers of the govern ment. Civil government is indispensable to the existence and well-being of society; and all who share in its benefits, should yield to its demands for the means of its support. But the people ought to remember, that they cannot safely intrust the protection of their rights and interests to bad men; and if they expect an equivalent for their money, they must expend it in buying the services of good and faithful officers.

§1002. Another object of the public expenditure, is the relief of the poor. There are, in every country, many persons who, through unavoidable misfortune, are reduced to poverty, and who cannot support themselves. Every humane government makes provision for the maintenance of such persons at the public expense. And those who have shared more liberally in the Divine benefaction, ought cheerfully to contribute to the relief of their necessitous fellow-men.

§ 1003. Of the advantages of a free and easy intercourse between the different parts of the country, and of the economy of constructing important works of internal improvement at the expense of the nation or state, we have spoken else. where. (See Internal Improvements.) There are other similar improvements demanded by the general welfare and prosperity of the country, the expense of which is properly chargeable to the public account.

§ 1004. A portion of the public wealth should be appropriated to the general diffusion of learning. It is for the interest of the community, that every citizen possess a good practical education. But there are many who are indifferent to the education of their children, or whose vices or misfortunes have deprived them of the means necessary to educate them properly. Benevolence, as well as a regard for the general good of society, requires that learning be encouraged and promoted by the government, to such extent

probable effect of employing bad and incompetent public officers ? 1002. By whom ought poor persons to be supported? § 1003. Is it good economy for a nation to expend any of its funds in making internal improvements? Show how they prove beneficial to the community in general? § 1004. State the reasons why the government

at least, as to bring within the reach of all, the means of acquiring a practical education, which shall embrace a knowledge, not only of the sciences necessary to qualify them for the common business of life, but a knowledge also of their duties as citizens, and as members of society.

1005. In conclusion, the compiler is impelled, by a deep solicitude for the welfare of his country, and the preservation of its free institutions, to offer a few observations on the subject of education, as the grand means by which the people of these United States are to transmit the blessings of civil and religious liberty to their descendants. Education is the hope of our republic. It gives strength and stability to the government, and forms the basis of national as well as social happiness. The general diffusion of learning, therefore, is an object that demands the regard of every citizen.

§ 1006. Patriotism should be sedulously inculcated, and universally cherished. Genuine patriotism is that ardent love of country, which will induce the citizen to make all needful sacrifices to promote its welfare. It should be one of the first objects, in the education of our youth, to cause them to place a proper estimate upon republican institutions. They must early learn, that their individual happiness, no less than the happiness and prosperity of the nation, depends upon the preservation of the liberties guarantied by our invaluable constitution.

§1007. A useful education includes a knowledge of the principles of the government under which we live. How can any citizen be qualified to take a part in the administration of the government, who is destitute of this knowledge? Free government presupposes intelligence in the body politic. Ignorance and liberty cannot long subsist together. When men do not understand the tenure by which they hold their rights, they are incapable of maintaining them. Presuming upon the ignorance of the people, ambitious politicians will be encouraged to break through the restraints of

should encourage and support institutions of learning? § 1005. What effect has education upon individual and national happiness? § 1006. What is patriotism? What influence will it naturally have upon the conduct of citizens? § 1007. Can you tell why a knowledge of the