duty for them. This religious instruction is kept carefully apart from the secular education, and is not permitted in any way to interfere with it.

The German speaking portion of the population is the most advanced in general education; and the least the people of the provinces of Slavonia, Croatia, and Dalmatia. The machinery for the teaching of the higher branches of education is very complete. The University of Pesth is one of the richest in Europe, its revenues amounting to above 34,0007. a year. It is attended by about 1000 students, comprising all religious denominations. There are six other universities in the empire, Vienna, Prague, Gratz, Cracow, Innspruck, and Lemberg. The number of students regularly attending them is over 8000, about one-fourth of whom are at Vienna. The expenditure connected with the maintenance of the universities, inclusive of charges for university libraries and grants for scientific collections and institutions, but exclusive of the cost of exhibitions for poor students, buildings, taxes, passive interests, averages in Vienna 355,000 florins; Prague, 201,000 florins; Pesth, 150,000 florins; Cracow, 102,000 florins; Lemberg, 115,000 florins; Gratz, 66,000 florins; Innspruck, 63,000 florins. Next in rank to the universities are the theological seminaries, over 100 in number, with nearly 4000 pupils.

years devoted great attention and large sums of money to the perfecting of its military resources, with the result that, in spite of former reverses of fortune, it must now be reckoned as one of the most formidable Continental powers. On a peace footing the army numbers only about 300,000 men, but on a mobilization Austria could put no less than 900,000 men into the field; or, if the efficient landwehr be included, 1,200,000 men, with from 2000 to 2200 guns. The fighting material would not be so homogeneous as that of Germany or France, being drawn from so many different nationalities; but in the presence of any danger to the country the army could be thoroughly relied upon; while the artillery is of the best in Europe. The standing army is formed, after the model of Prussia, by universal liability to serve in the army. The term of service is ten years, three of which the soldier must spend in active service, after which he is enrolled for the remaining seven years in the army of reserve, with further liability to serve two years in the landwehr. There are twenty-five fortresses of the first and second rank. The Austrian navy consisted in 1878 of 10 ironclads and 37 other steamers, chiefly of small dimensions, and 10 sailing ships. The navy is recruited by conscription from the seafaring population, the term of service being eight years, a portion of which time is passed in the reserve. History. In the times immediately succeeding There are two harbours of war, Pola and Trieste, the Christian era, the Romans advanced from the the first being the chief naval port, and the second Alps, and invaded that part now called the 'Prothe great storehouse and arsenal. vince below the Ens,' in which Vienna itself is Religion and Education.-The ecclesiastical situated. The land was occupied as separate huntorganization of Austria comprises archbishops, ing grounds, the resort of semi-barbarous tribes, bishops, and a numerous body of arch-priests, deans, rural deans, parish priests, local chaplains, vicars, and beneficed ministers. Besides these, there are more than 500 convents and monasteries, and nearly 300 abbeys in the empire. In many parts Protestants were until recently only tolerated, but since 1868 much greater freedom has been permitted.

Laws were passed in 1821 that the population should not be without elementary education, but this was never properly enforced until 1869, when national education was made compulsory in Austria. By this law, every child must attend school from the age of six to that of fourteen, and even beyond that age, unless it is certified that he has acquired the full minimum of education considered necessary for every citizen. The course consists of reading, writing, arithmetic, a sound knowledge of the native language and the native history, geography, physical science, geometry, singing, and athletic exercises. Children employed in factories are exempt from attendance at the communal school, provided that they obtain the required amount of education at a special school of their employers; and wherever a special trade-school exists, an employer is obliged to send all his apprentices to it. At the same time, every child is provided with religious instruction in the creed in which he or she is born, the local authorities of the religious community to which the child belongs being bound to provide competent certified teachers; upon their default, the state steps in and undertakes the

among whom the Pannonii, Boii, and Norici are most frequently mentioned in the Roman annals. Over such a race triumph was easy; a state of dependence quickly succeeded to a condition of savage freedom; and the establishment of military colonies on the Danube, as part of the Roman line of defence against the barbarous hordes of the north, was succeeded by the incorporation of this tract of country with the province of Pannonia. Noricum thenceforward supplied the Roman legions with fierce and hardy soldiers. In the fourth century, when the north poured down its hordes upon the south, the middle regions of the Danube fell a victim to the spoilers who successively traversed them in quest of more alluring prey. From thence to the time of Charlemagne they were subjected to a succession of ruthless attacks; but that conqueror reduced it under his dominion. It was a dependency of Bavaria from 944 to 1269, when Ottacar, king of Bohemia, seized it; but in his struggle to maintain his conquest against Rudolph of Hapsburg, emperor of Germany, the latter expelled him from the Austrian territories in 1276, and seven years afterwards invested his son Albert with the sovereignty, as an appendage to the Hapsburg possessions. His successors, in the course of time, extended their dominion over several other states, which they acquired either by marriage, purchase, or inheritance: among these we may mention the Margraviate of Burgau in Styria, acquired in 1283; Carinthia, in 1331; the Tyrol, in 1363; Trieste, in 1380; and the Landgraviate

From the all before it. In the former kingdom, Charles Albert of Sardinia, father of the present king of Italy, assumed the leadership; in the latter, Louis Kossuth directed the revolutionary movement. On the part of Austria, Radetsky took the field against Charles Albert, and after several engagements dispersed the Italian troops at the great battle of Novara. This led to the abdication of Charles Albert. First Windischgrätz, and then Haynan and Jellachich, ban of Croatia, led the Austrians against the insurgents in Hungary, and ultimately, with the help of Russia, the imperial power triumphed. Ferdinand I., feeling himself unequal to the situation, abdicated in favour of the Archduke Francis Charles, and the son of the latter, Francis Joseph, was declared emperor, December 2, 1848.

measures being still maintained by the priesthood, the campaign between the church and state closed in 1870 by the complete abrogation of the concordat, and the sweeping away of all privileges held by the Roman Catholic church beyond those enjoyed by other religious communities. Lastly, by the passing of the direct elections law in 1873, Austria, which until then had been but a system of independent states, became possessed of a truly Imperial Parliament, representing national instead of merely provincial interests. The government have several times during the present century, once so lately as 1868, tampered with public credit, in order to relieve regularly recurring embarrassments. Of the undeveloped wealth of the country, and of the industry and energy of the people, there can be no question; and if only peace is insured to the country, and a fair run of prosperity is enjoyed, Austria may yet see the end of its sorely trying period of deficits. (The Financial Condition of Austria, by Count de Mülinen, Paris, 1875; Statesman's Year Book, 1878.)

her from the leadership of Germany, She engaged the emperor to join in her nefarious hostilities with Denmark, for the separation from that kingdom of the continental provinces of Schleswig-Holstein. Against two such powerful enemies Denmark could make no stand, when deserted by all the chief European Powers. By the treaty of Vienna, October 20, she resigned the duchies to the two allies, who, however, soon quarrelled, as Prussia had intended, about the disposition of the spoil. The breach between the two courts widened daily. Austria could not but see that Prussia, while openly breathing peace and friendship, was arming to the teeth, and perfecting her military organization. She felt that her position as a paramount power in Germany was menaced. In vain she sought for allies. Russia stood aloof; England had no sympathy for a state that clutched Venetia in a grasp of tyranny; Italy had secretly concluded an offensive and defensive alliance with Prussia; and France, cajoled and bribed by the Prussian minister, Count von Bismarck, would make no sign. It is unnecessary to unravel the web of intrigue by which the ambition of a king and his statesmen, the overmastering desire for a strong nd united Germany in the breasts of his people, Collections of autographs, as the handwritings of were eventually gratified. Austria made what individual persons, had their origin about the middle preparation she could to meet the storm, and having of the sixteenth century in Germany, where the exhausted every diplomatic artifice, reluctantly gentry carried about with them white paper books, drew the sword. She soon found herself not only to obtain and preserve in them the signatures of unable to cope with her formidable foe, but attacked persons of eminence, or new acquaintance; whence on both sides, by Prussia and Italy, was beaten such a book received most generally the name of with a suddenness and completeness which aston-Album,' though it was sometimes called 'Hortus,' or ished all Europe. The Prussian troops, armed 'Thesaurus Amicorum.' (See Plate, 'Autographs.") with the needle gun, defeated the Austrians on AUTOMATON, derived from two Greek words, every field, and the crushing disasters of Mun-meaning self-moved, is a name generally applied chengrätz (June 24, 1866) and Sadowa (July 3), to all machines which are so constructed as to which exposed Vienna itself to the assault of the imitate any actions of men or animals. victors, compelled the emperor to sue for peace. A treaty was concluded at Prague between the three combatants, which gave Venetia to Italy; Hanover, Hesse, and other provinces to Prussia; dissolved the German Confederation, and entirely swept away the emperor's pretentions to its leadership.

AUTOGRAPH, from the Greek avròyçapı (written with one's own hand'), an original manuscript; the handwriting of any person.

AUTOÑO'MEA (Risso), in zoology, a genus of long-tailed decapod crustaceans, founded on Autonomea Olivii, which is a little more than an inch in length, and bears great resemblance in form to Nika or Alpheus. Autonomea lives solitary in seaweed, &c.; and the female produces red eggs, which she carries with her about the middle of summer. It is found in the Adriatic Sea, and sometimes, but rarely, in the neighbourhood of Nice.

After the war-following out the maxim of a great German philosopher, that what a state loses in outward importance must be replaced by inward greatness and development'-Austria ap- AUTONOMY is the system by which members plied herself vigorously to the task of making a of a state manage their own government. The consolidated nation out of the various conflicting term indicates the tie between several confederate nationalities over which she presides. Great and states, while each retains independent action. liberal measures of conciliation were passed, and AUTOPSY, the examination of a dead body. a constitution was granted to Hungary, which at AUTOTYPE. Reproductions of pictorial art by once secured its contentment and loyalty to the means of photography, although absolutely faithstate. Internal reforms of every kind were inau-ful, are found liable to gradual and spontaneous gurated, new charters and privileges were granted change, the result of slow chemical decomposition to the people, and nearly every branch of the of the metallic oxides by which their lines and administration was reorganized. A more liberal shadows are composed. Recently, however, means commercial policy was adopted, and a general have been found for reproducing pictures photoimpulse given to industry and enterprise through- graphically, but yet in printer's ink or other perout the empire. Further, in spite of the most manent pigment, so that the perfect fidelity of the determined opposition of the Roman Catholic camera is combined with absolute durability. Such hierarchy, bills were passed in 1868 recognizing the reproductions have been called autotypes,' to sigvalidity and legality of civil marriages, and depriv-nify that they are due to the action of the original ing the clergy of their almost absolute power with alone, without any intervention on the part of the regard to education. A violent hostility to these artist or draughtsman.

all before it. In the former kingdom, Charles Albert of Sardinia, father of the present king of Italy, assumed the leadership; in the latter, Louis Kossuth directed the revolutionary movement. On the part of Austria, Radetsky took the field against Charles Albert, and after several engagements dispersed the Italian troops at the great battle of Novara. This led to the abdication of Charles Albert. First Windischgrätz, and then Haynan and Jellachich, ban of Croatia, led the Austrians against the insurgents in Hungary, and ultimately, with the help of Russia, the imperial power triumphed. Ferdinand I., feeling himself unequal to the situation, abdicated in favour of the Archduke Francis Charles, and the son of the latter, Francis Joseph, was declared emperor, December 2, 1848.

For a time the power of Austria in Italy seemed supreme. Parma, Tuscany, Modena, the Roman States, and the kingdom of the two Sicilies entered into secret obligations which acknowledged her predominance. On discovering the Austrian intrigues, Piedmont felt that its constitutional government and national independence were menaced, and rapidly began to arm. Austria professed to be alarmed by her hostile preparations, and threatened war unless they were discontinued. In this emergency the Emperor Napoleon III. stood forward

Austrian troops, under Marshal Giulay, crossed the Ticino (April 29, 1859), he suddenly declared war, landed a large and well-equipped army at Genoa, and took the field in person. The emperor of Austria, aware of the gravity of the situation, likewise repaired to the scene of action, and Victor Emmanuel, the present king of Italy, took the command of the Piedmontese forces. A brief but sanguinary campaign ensued.

of the Breisgau, in Swabia, in 1367. From the middle of the fifteenth century, or more accurately speaking, from the year 1437, when Albert II. was raised to the dignity of King of the Romans and Emperor of Germany, this high office was uninterruptedly enjoyed by the Hapsburg line of Austrian sovereigns. At one time the Austrian emperor's dominions, under the House of Hapsburg, included Alsace and the Netherlands; and at another time, under Charles V., Spain and the Indies; but both of these possessions afterwards fell off. Ferdinand I., by marriage with the daughter of Lewis II., king of Hungary, in 1526, became possessed of her extensive inheritance, which was composed of Hungary, Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and Lusatia. The ancient possessions of the House of Hapsburg in Switzerland had been gradually wrested from it, the signal being given by the confederation formed by Uri, Schwytz, and Unterwalden in November, 1307; and the Thirty Year's War, in the middle of the seventeenth century, stripped it of Alsace and Lusatia. Austria, however, received ample compensation under the treaty of Utrecht in 1713, which united the Netherlands and certain states in Italy to its dominions. Under Maria Theresa the Austrian empire lost Silesia, and then Parma; but gained Galizia and Lodomiria, and the Buckowina. Francis as the champion of Italian liberty; and when the II., whose accession took place in 1792, lost the Netherlands and Lombardy in 1797, in exchange for which the treaty of Campo Formio gave him the Venetian territories. The subsequent treaty of Luneville, in 1801, did not much affect his dominions, but the peace of Pressburg, in 1805, was purchased by the sacrifice of his possessions in Italy, Swabia, and the Tyrol, for which the acquisition of Salzburg was but a poor indemnity; and the treaty of Vienna, four years afterwards, wrested from him in addition, not only a considerable portion of Galizia, which fell to Russia, but Carniola, Istria, Salzburg, the lands called the Innviertel,' Venice, and other southern provinces. Full restitution was, however, made to him by the provisions of the treaties of Paris in 1814, and of Vienna in the following year. The Breisgau, we should add, became the property of Baden in 1810. Francis declared himself hereditary Emperor of Austria in 1804, and laid down the dignity of Emperor of Germany and King of the Romans two years afterwards. He died in 1884, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Ferdinand I. By virtue of his German possessions, the emperor was a member of the German confederation, entitled to four out of the seventy votes in its full diets. As such he had to keep one in every thousand of the population of his German dominions in a perfect state of equipment and marching order, and supply, in case of public emergency, a first contingent of 94,882 men. The revolution in France which overthrew the rule of Louis Philippe (February 24, 1848), affected most of the European states. It led Austria into great difficulties. The nationalities, which had long suffered from the despotic imperial power, rose openly against it. In Vienna itself the revolutionary spirit triumphed for a season over the government, while in Italy and Hungary it carried

The principal engagements were-Montebello, May 20, 1859; Palestro, May 31, 1859; Magenta, June 3, 1859; Solferino, July 24, 1859; In each the Austrians were defeated, and at Solferino the repulse was so complete that Francis Joseph gladly opened negotiations for peace with the Emperor Napoleon, and purchased the safety of his empire by the cession of Lombardy to Italy. [ITALY.]

After these events the Austrian government showed an anxious desire to consolidate the empire by satisfying the just aspirations of the various races which compose it. The emperor made numerous concessions to his Hungarian subjects, and announced his intention of being crowned king of Hungary with all the old formalities. And a still more remarkable evidence of progress was afforded by the negotiation of a treaty of commerce with Britain, which virtually admitted Austria within the charmed circle of free trade, and whose provisions were calculated to increase very largely the commercial intercourse existing between the two countries. The treaty was to last for ten years from the 1st of January, 1867, and although in the commercial depression which ensued after 1873-74 an agitation arose for its repeal, its continuance, with some modifications, was agreed upon in 1876.

But Austria was not permitted to follow out her pacific dreams. In 1864 Prussia began the development of a long-matured project for ousting

measures being still maintained by the pr.esthood, the campaign between the church and state closed in 1870 by the complete abrogation of the concordat, and the sweeping away of all privileges held by the Roman Catholic church beyond those enjoyed by other religious communities. Lastly, by the passing of the direct elections law in 1873, Austria, which until then had been but a system of independent states, became possessed of a truly Imperial Parliament, representing national instead of merely provincial interests. The government have several times during the present century, once so lately as 1868, tampered with public credit, in order to relieve regularly recurring embarrassments. Of the undeveloped wealth of the country, and of the industry and energy of the people, there can be no question; and if only peace is insured to the country, and a fair run of prosperity is enjoyed, Austria may yet see the end of its sorely trying period of deficits. (The Financial Condition of Austria, by Count de Mulinen, Paris, 1875; Statesman's Year Book, 1878.)

her from the leadership of Germany, She engaged the emperor to join in her nefarious hostilities with Denmark, for the separation from that kingdom of the continental provinces of Schleswig-Holstein. Against two such powerful enemies Denmark could make no stand, when deserted by all the chief European Powers. By the treaty of Vienna, October 20, she resigned the duchies to the two allies, who, however, soon quarrelled, as Prussia had intended, about the disposition of the spoil. The breach between the two courts widened daily. Austria could not but see that Prussia, while openly breathing peace and friendship, was arming to the teeth, and perfecting her military organization. She felt that her position as a paramount power in Germany was menaced. In vain she sought for allies. Russia stood aloof; England had no sympathy for a state that clutched Venetia in a grasp of tyranny; Italy had secretly concluded an offensive and defensive alliance with Prussia; and France, cajoled and bribed by the Prussian minister, Count von Bismarck, would make no sign. It is unnecessary to unravel the web of intrigue by which the ambition of a king and his statesmen, the overmastering desire for a strong nd united Germany in the breasts of his people, were eventually gratified. Austria made what preparation she could to meet the storm, and having exhausted every diplomatic artifice, reluctantly drew the sword. She soon found herself not only unable to cope with her formidable foe, but attacked on both sides, by Prussia and Italy, was beaten with a suddenness and completeness which astonished all Europe. The Prussian troops, armed with the needle gun, defeated the Austrians on every field, and the crushing disasters of Mun-meaning self-moved, is a name generally applied chengrätz (June 24, 1866) and Sadowa (July 3), which exposed Vienna itself to the assault of the victors, compelled the emperor to sue for peace. A treaty was concluded at Prague between the three combatants, which gave Venetia to Italy; Hanover, Hesse, and other provinces to Prussia; dissolved in length, and bears great resemblance in form to the German Confederation, and entirely swept away the emperor's pretentions to its leadership.

state.

AUTOGRAPH, from the Greek avròycap, ('written with one's own hand'), an original manuscript; the handwriting of any person.

Collections of autographs, as the handwritings of individual persons, had their origin about the middle of the sixteenth century in Germany, where the gentry carried about with them white paper books, to obtain and preserve in them the signatures of persons of eminence, or new acquaintance; whence such a book received most generally the name of Album,' though it was sometimes called 'Hortus,' or 'Thesaurus Amicorum.' (See Plate, 'Autographs.') AUTO'MATON, derived from two Greek words,

to all machines which are so constructed as to imitate any actions of men or animals.

AUTONO MEA (Risso), in zoology, a genus of long-tailed decapod crustaceans, founded on Autonomea Olivii, which is a little more than an inch

Nika or Alpheus. Autonomea lives solitary in seaweed, &c.; and the female produces red eggs, which she carries with her about the middle of summer. It is found in the Adriatic Sea, and sometimes, but rarely, in the neighbourhood of Nice.

AUTONOMY is the system by which members of a state manage their own government. The term indicates the tie between several confederate states, while each retains independent action.

After the war-following out the maxim of a great German philosopher, that what a state loses in outward importance must be replaced by inward greatness and development'-Austria applied herself vigorously to the task of making a consolidated nation out of the various conflicting nationalities over which she presides. Great and liberal measures of conciliation were passed, and AUTOPSY, the examination of a dead body. a constitution was granted to Hungary, which at AUTOTYPE. Reproductions of pictorial art by once secured its contentment and loyalty to the means of photography, although absolutely faithInternal reforms of every kind were inau-ful, are found liable to gradual and spontaneous gurated, new charters and privileges were granted change, the result of slow chemical decomposition to the people, and nearly every branch of the of the metallic oxides by which their lines and administration was reorganized. A more liberal shadows are composed. Recently, however, means commercial policy was adopted, and a general have been found for reproducing pictures photoimpulse given to industry and enterprise through- graphically, but yet in printer's ink or other perout the empire. Further, in spite of the most manent pigment, so that the perfect fidelity of the determined opposition of the Roman Catholic camera is combined with absolute durability. Such hierarchy, bills were passed in 1868 recognizing the reproductions have been called 'autotypes,' to sigvalidity and legality of civil marriages, and depriv-nify that they are due to the action of the original ing the clergy of their almost absolute power with alone, without any intervention on the part of the regard to education. A violent hostility to these artist or draughtsman.