See, beside general authorities for Asia Minor, J. Dallaway, PERGOLA (Lat. pergula, a projecting roof, shed, from pergere, to reach forward, project), a term adopted from the Italian for an arbour of trellis-work over which are trained creeping plants, vines, &c., and especially for a trellis-work covering a path, walk or balcony in a garden. Telephus, was priestess of Athena Alea at Tegea, and daughter | afterwards by W. Dörpfeld. The first impulse to them was given of Aleus; fleeing from Tegea, she became the wife of Teuthras, in 1873 by the reception in Berlin of certain reliefs, extracted the eponymous king of Teuthrania, and her son Telephus by Humann from the walls of Bergama. These were recognized as succeeded him. Athena Polias was the patron-goddess of probably parts of the Great Altar of Zeus erected by Eumenes II. Pergamum, and the legend combines the ethnological record of in 180 B.C. and decorated with a combat of gods and giants, the connexion claimed between Arcadia and Pergamum with the symbolic of the struggle between the Pergamene Greeks and the usual belief that the hero of the city was son of its guardian Gaulish barbarians. Excavation at the south end of the Acrodeity, or at least of her priestess. Nothing more is recorded of polis led to the discovery of the Altar itself and the rest of its the city till the time of Xenophon, when it was a small fortified surviving reliefs, which, now restored and mounted in Berlin, town on the summit of the hill; but it had been striking coins form one of the glories of that city. In very high relief and since 420 B.C. at latest. Its importance began under Lysimachus, representing furious action, these sculptures are the finest which who deposited his treasures, 9000 talents, in this strong fortress survive from the Pergamene school, which replaced the repose under the charge of a eunuch, Philetaerus of Tium. In 283 B.C. and breadth of earlier schools by excess of emphasis and detail. Philetaerus rebelled, Lysimachus died without being able to The summit of the Acropolis is crowded with public buildings, put down the revolt, and Pergamum became the capital of a between the market place, which lies at the southern point, and little principality. Partly by clever diplomacy, partly through the Royal Gardens on the north. In the interval are the Zeus the troubles caused by the Gaulish invasion and by the dissen- altar; the great hexastyle Doric temple of Athena flanked by sions among the rival kings, Philetaerus contrived to keep on the palace on the east, by the theatre and its long terrace on the good terms with his neighbours on all sides (283-263 B.C.). His west, and by a library on the north; and a large Corinthian temple nephew Eumenes (263-241) succeeded him, increased his power, of Trajan. The residential part of the Greek, and practically and even defeated Antiochus II. of Syria in a pitched battle near all the Roman city lay below the Acropolis on ground now Sardis. His successor Attalus I. (241-197) won a great battle mostly occupied by modern Bergama; but west of the river over the Gauls, and assumed the title of king. The other Selinus, on rising ground facing the Acropolis, are to be seen Greek kings who aimed at power in Asia Minor were his natural notable remains of a Roman theatre, an amphitheatre and a enemies, and about 222 reduced Pergamenian power to a very circus. low ebb. On the other hand, the influence of the Romans was beginning to make itself felt in the East. Attalus prudently connected himself with them and shared in their continuous success. Pergamum thus became the capital of a considerable territory and a centre of art and regal magnificence. The wealth of the state and the king's desire to celebrate his victories by monuments of art led to the rise of the " Pergamenian school " in sculpture. The splendour of Pergamum was at its height under Eumenes II. (197-159). He continued true to the Romans during their wars with Antiochus and Perseus, and his kingdom spread over the greater part of western Asia Minor, including Mysia, Lydia, great part of Phrygia, Ionia and Caria. To celebrate the great achievement of his reign, the defeat of the barbarian Gauls, he built in the agora a vast altar to Zeus Soter (see below). He left an infant son, Attalus (III.), and a brother, Attalus II. (Philadelphus), who ruled 159-138, and was succeeded by his nephew, Attalus III. (Philometor). The latter died in 133, and bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans, who erected part of it (excluding Great Phrygia, which they gave to Mithradates of Pontus) into a province under the name of Asia. Pergamum continued to rank for two centuries as the capital, and subsequently, with Ephesus and Smyrna, as one of the three great cities of the province; and the devotion of its former kings to the Roman cause was continued by its citizens, who erected on the Acropolis a magnificent temple to Augustus. It was the seat of a conventus, including the cities of the Caïcus valley and some of those in the northern part of the Hermus valley. Under the Roman Empire Pergamum was one of the chief seats of the worship of Asclepius "the Saviour "; invalids came from distant parts of the country to ask advice from the god and his priests. The temple and the curative establishment of the god were situated outside the city. Pergamum was the chief centre of the imperial cult under the early empire, and, in W. M. Ramsay's opinion, was for that reason referred to in Rev. ii. 13 as the place of "Satan's throne." It was also an early seat of Christianity, and one of the Seven Churches. The place, re-fortified by the Byzantines, and still retaining its name as Bergama, passed into Moslem hands early in the 14th century. The lower town was rebuilt, and in the 17th and 18th centuries became a chief seat of the great Dere Bey family of Kara Osman Oglu (see MANISA), which did not resign it to direct Ottoman control until about 1825. It is still an administrative and commercial centre of importance, having some 20,000 inhabitants. Excavations. The site of the ancient city, has been the scene of extensive excavations promoted by the Berlin museum since 1878, and directed first by K. Humann and A. Conze, and PERGOLESI (or PERGOLESE), GIOVANNI BATTISTA (17101736), Italian musical composer, was born at Jesi near Ancona on the 3rd of January 1710, and after studying music under local masters until he was sixteen was sent by a noble patron to complete his education at Naples, where he became a pupil of Greco, Durante and Feo for composition and of Domenico de Matteis for the violin. His earliest known composition was a sacred drama, La Conversione di S. Guglielmo d'Aquitania, between the acts of which was given the comic intermezzo Il Maestro di musica. These works were performed in 1731, probably by fellow pupils, at the monastery of St Agnello Maggiore. Through the influence of the prince of Stigliano and other patrons, including the duke of Maddaloni, Pergolesi was commissioned to write an opera for the court theatre, and in the winter of 1731 successfully produced La Sallustia, followed in 1732 by Ricimero, which was a failure. Both operas had comic intermezzi, but in neither case were they successful. After this disappointment he abandoned the theatre for a time and wrote thirty sonatas for two violins and bass for the prince of Stigliano. He was also invited to compose a mass on the occasion of the earthquake of 1731, and a second mass, also for two choirs and orchestra, is said to have been praised by Leo. In September 1732 he returned to the stage with a comic opera in Neapolitan dialect, Lo Fratè inammorato, which was well received; and in 1733 he produced a serious opera, Il Prigionier, to which the celebrated Serva padrona furnished the intermezzi. There seems, however, no ground for supposing that this work made any noticeable difference to the composer's already established reputation as a writer of comic opera. About this time (17331734) Pergolesi entered the service of the duke of Maddaloni, and accompanied him to Rome, where he conducted a mass for five voices and orchestra in the church of St Lorenzo in Lucina (May 1734). There is no foundation for the statement that he was appointed maestro di cappella at the Holy House of Loreto; he was, in fact, organist of the royal chapel at Naples in 1735. The complete failure of L'Olimpiade at Rome in January 1735 taste and technical skill. His satin-wood table-tops, china cabinets and side-tables are the last word in a daintiness which here and there perhaps is mere prettiness. Pergolesi likewise designed silver plate, and many of his patterns are almost instinctively attributed to the brothers Adam by the makers and purchasers of modern reproductions. There is, moreover, reason to believe that he aided the Adam firm in purely architectural work. In later life Pergolesi appears, like Angelica Kauffmann, to have returned to Italy. is said to have broken his health, and determined him to abandon | pieces attributed to him are remarkable examples of artistic the theatre for the Church; this statement is, however, incompatible with the fact that his comic opera Il Flaminio was produced in Naples in September of the same year with undoubted success. His ill health was more probably due to his notorious profligacy. In 1736 he was sent by the duke of Maddaloni to the Capuchin monastery at Pozzuoli, the air of the place being considered beneficial to cases of consumption. Here he is commonly supposed to have written the celebrated Stabat Mater; Paisiello, however, stated that this work was written soon after he left the Conservatorio dei poveri di Gesù Cristo in 1729. We may at any rate safely attribute to this period the Scherzo fatto ai Cappuccini di Pozzuoli, a musical jest of a somewhat indecent nature. He died on the 17th of March 1736, and was buried in the cathedral of Pozzuoli. Pergolesi's posthumous reputation has been exaggerated beyond all reason. This was due partly to his early death, and largely to the success of La Serva padrona when performed by the Bouffons Italiens at Paris in 1752. Charming as this little piece undoubtedly is, it is inferior both for music and for humour to Pergolesi's three-act comic operas in dialect, which are remembered now only by the air “ Ogni pena più spietata" from Lo Fratè inammorato. As a composer of sacred music Pergolesi is effective, but essentially commonplace and superficial, and the frivolous style of the Stabat Mater was rightly censured by Paisiello and Padre Martini. His best quality is a certain sentimental charm, which is very conspicuous in the cantata L'Orfeo and in the genuinely beautiful duets "Se cerca, se dice" and "Ne' giorni tuoi felici" of the serious opera L'Olimpiade; the latter number was transferred unaltered from his early sacred drama S. Guglielmo, and we can thus see that his natural talent underwent hardly any development during the five years of his musical activity. On the whole, however, Pergolesi is in no way superior to his contemporaries of the same school, and it is purely accidental that a later age should have regarded him as its greatest representative. BIBLIOGRAPHY.-The most complete life of Pergolesi is that by E. Faustini Fasini (Gazzetta musicale di Milano, 31st of August 1899, &c., published by Ricordi in book form, 1900); G. Annibaldi's Il Pergolesi in Pozzuoli, vita intima (Jesi, 1890) gives some interesting additional details derived from documents at Jesi, but is cast in the form of a romantic novel. H. M. Schletterer's lecture in the Sammlung musikalischer Vorträge, edited by Count P. von Waldersee, is generally inaccurate and uncritical, but gives a good account of later performances of Pergolesi's works in Italy and elsewhere. Various portraits are reproduced in the Gazz. mus. di Milano for the 14th of December 1899, and in Musica e musicisti, December 1905. Complete lists of his compositions are given in Eitner's Quellen-Lexicon and in Grove's Dictionary (new ed.). (E. J. D.) PERGOLESI, MICHAEL ANGELO, an 18th-century Italian decorative artist, who worked chiefly in England. Biographical details are almost entirely lacking, but like Cipriani he was brought, or attracted, to England by Robert Adam after his famous continental tour. He worked so extensively for the Adams, and his designs are so closely typical of much upon which their reputation rests, that it is impossible to doubt his influence upon their style. His range, like theirs, was catholic. He designed furniture, mantelpieces, ceilings, chandeliers, doors and mural ornament with equal felicity, and as an artist in plaster work in low relief he was unapproached in his day. He delighted in urns and sphinxes and interlaced gryphons, in amorini with bows and torches, in trophies of musical instruments and martial weapons, and in flowering arabesques which were always graceful if sometimes rather thin. The centre panels of his walls and ceilings were often occupied by classical and pastoral subjects painted by Cipriani, Angelica Kauffmann, Antonio Zucchi, her husband, and sometimes by himself. These nymphs and amorini, with their disengaged and riant air and classic grace, were not infrequently used as copies for painting upon that satinwood furniture of the last quarter of the 18th century which has never been surpassed for dainty elegance, and for the popularity of which Pergolesi was in large measure responsible; they were even reproduced in marquetry. Some of this painted work was, apparently, executed by his own hand; most of the Our chief source of information upon his works is his own publication, Designs for Various Ornaments on Seventy Plates, a series of folio sheets, without text, published between 1777 and 1801. PERI, JACOPO (1561-16 ?), Italian musical composer, was born at Florence on the 20th of August 1561, of a noble family. After studying under Cristoforo Malvezzi of Lucca, he became maestro di cappella, first to Ferdinand, duke of Tuscany, and later to Cosmo II. He was an important member of the literary and artistic circle which frequented the house of Giovanni Bardi, conte de Vernio, where the revival of Greek tragedy with its appropriate musical declamation was a favourite subject of discussion. With this end in view the poet Ottavio Rinuccini supplied a drama with the title of Dafne, to which Peri composed music, and this first attempt at opera was performed privately in 1597 in the Palazzo Corsi at Florence. This work was so much admired that in 1600 Rinuccini and Peri were commissioned to produce an opera on the occasion of the marriage of Henry IV. of France with Maria di' Medici. This work (L'Euridice) attracted a great deal of attention, and the type once publicly established, the musical drama was set on the road to success by the efforts of other composers and the patronage of other courts. Peri himself seems never to have followed up his success with other operas; he became maestro di cappella to the duke of Ferrara in 1601, but after the publication of his Varie musiche a una, due e tre voci at Florence in 1609, nothing more is known of him. Peri's Dafne (which has entirely disappeared) and Euridice (printed at Florence 1600; reprinted Venice 1608 and Florence 1863) are of the greatest importance not only as being the earliest attempts at opera, but as representing the new monodic and declamatory style which is the basis of modern music as opposed to the contrapuntal methods of Palestrina and his contemporaries. Peri's work is of course primitive in the extreme, but it is by no means without beauty, and there are many scenes in Euridice which show a considerable dramatic power. PERIANDER (Gr. Ilepiavôpos), the second tyrant of Corinth (625-585 B.C.). In contrast with his father Cypselus, the founder of the dynasty, he is generally represented as a cruel despot, or at any rate as having used all possible devices for keeping his city in subjection. Among numerous anecdotes the following is characteristic. Periander, on being consulted by the tyrant Thrasybulus of Miletus as to the best device for maintaining himself in power, by way of reply led the messenger through a cornfield, and as he walked struck off the tallest and best-grown ears (a legend applied to Roman circumstances in Livy i. 54). It seems, however, that the prevalent Greek tradition concerning him was derived from the versions of the Corinthian aristocracy, who had good reasons for giving a prejudiced account, and the conflicting character of the various legends further shows that their historical value is slight. A careful sifting of the available evidence would rather tend to represent Periander as a ruler of unusual probity and insight, and the exceptional firmness and activity of his government is beyond dispute. His home administration was so successful that he was able to dispense with direct taxation. He fostered wealth by the steady encouragement of industry and by drastic legislation against idleness, luxury and vice; and the highest prosperity of the Corinthian handicrafts may be assigned to the period of his rule (see CORINTH). At the same time he sought to check excessive accumulation of wealth in individual hands and restricted the influx of population into the town. Employment was found 3 145 The beginning of his ascendancy is marked by an unprecedented outward expansion of Athenian power. In continuance of Cimon's policy, 200 ships were sent to support the Egyptian insurgents against Persia (459), while detachments operated against Cyprus and Phoenicia. At the same time Athens embarked on several wars in Greece Proper. An alliance with the Megarians, who were being hard pressed by their neighbours of Corinth, led to enmity with this latter power, and before long Epidaurus and Aegina were drawn into the struggle. On sea the Athenians, after two minor engagements, gained a decisive victory which enabled them to blockade Aegina. On land their general Myronides beat off two Corinthian attacks on Megara, which had been further secured by long walls drawn between the capital and its port Nisaea, nearly a mile distant. In 457 the Athenians and their allies ventured to intercept a Spartan force which was returning home from central Greece. At Tanagra in Boeotia a pitched battle was fought, in which both Pericles and the partisans of Cimon distinguished them for the proletariat in the erection of temples and of public works. | Periander further appears as a patron of literature, for it was by his invitation that the poet Arion came to Corinth to organize the dithyramb. He devoted no less attention to the increase of Corinthian commerce, which in his days plied busily on both eastern and western seas. With this end in view he established colonies at Potidaea and Apollonia in Macedonia, at Anactorium and Leucas in north-western Greece, and he is said to have projected a canal through the Isthmus, In Greece proper he conquered Epidaurus, and with the help of his fleet of triremes brought the important trading centre of Corcyra under his control, while his interest in the Olympian festival is perhaps attested by a dedication which may be ascribed to him-the famous chest of Cypselus." He cultivated friendly relations with the tyrants of Miletus and Mytilene, and maintained a connexion with the kings of Lydia, of Egypt and, possibly, of Phrygia. In spite of these varied achievements Periander never entirely conciliated his subjects, for he could not trust himself without a bodyguard. Moreover his family life, accord-selves. The Spartans were successful but did not pursue their ing to all accounts, was unfortunate. His sons all died or were estranged from him, and the murder of his last remaining child Lycophron, the governor of Corcyra, is said to have broken his spirit and hastened on his death. Periander was reckoned one of the seven sages of Greece, and was the reputed author of a collection of maxims ("Tπоñкαι) in 2000 verses. The letters ascribed to him by Diogenes Laërtius are undoubtedly spurious. Herodotus iii. 48-53, v. 92; Aristotle, Politics, v. 6, 10-12; Heracleides Ponticus in C. Müller's Frag. hist. graec. ii. 212; Nicolaus Damascenus, ibid., iii. 393; Diogenes Laertius, De vitis clarorum philosophorum, i. ch. 7. (M. O. B. C.) PERICLES (490-429 B.C.), Athenian statesman, was born about 490 B.C., the son of Xanthippus and Agariste. His father1 took a prominent part in Athenian politics, and in 479 held high command in the Greek squadron which annihilated the remnants of Xerxes' fleet at Mycale; through his mother, the niece of Cleisthenes, he was connected with the former tyrants of Sicyon and the family of the Alcmaeonidae. His early training was committed to the ablest and most advanced teachers of the day: Damon instructed him in music, Zeno the Eleatic revealed to him the powers of dialectic; the philosopher Anaxagoras, who lived in close friendship with Pericles, had great influence on his cast of thought and was commonly held responsible for that calm and undaunted attitude of mind which he preserved in the midst of the severest trials. The first important recorded act of Pericles falls in 463, when he helped to prosecute Cimon on a charge of bribery, after the latter's Thasian campaign; but as the accusation could hardly have been meant seriously Pericles was perhaps put forward only as a lay-figure. Undue prominence has commonly been assigned to him in the attack upon the Areopagus in 462 or 461 (see AREOPAGUS, CIMON). The Aristotelian Constitution of Athens shows conclusively that Pericles was not the leader of this campaign, for it expressly attributes the bulk of the reforms to Ephialtes (ch. 25), and mentions Ephialtes and Archestratus as the authors of the laws which the reactionaries of 404 sought to repeal (ch. 35): moreover, it was Ephialtes, not Pericles, on whom the Conservatives took revenge as the author of their discomfiture. To Ephialtes likewise we must ascribe the renunciation of the Spartan alliance and the new league with Argos and Thessaly (461). Not long after, however, when Ephialtes fell by the dagger, Pericles undoubtedly assumed the leading position in the state. 1 He must have been born before 485-484, in which years his father was ostracized. On the other hand, Plutarch describes him as véos v, i.e. not yet 30, in 463. | advantage, and soon afterwards the Athenians, seizing their opportunity, sallied forth again, and, after a victory under Myronides at Oenophyta, obtained the submission of all Boeotia, save Thebes, and of Phocis and Locris. In 455 Tolmides ravaged Laconia and secured Naupactus on the Corinthian gulf; in 454 Pericles himself defeated the Sicyonians, and made a descent upon Oeniadae at the mouth of the gulf, and in 453 conducted a cleruchy to the Thracian Chersonese. These years mark the zenith of Athenian greatness. Yet the drain on the country's strength was severe, and when news arrived in 453 that the whole of the Egyptian armament, together with a reserve fleet, had been destroyed by the Persians, a reaction set in, and Cimon, who was recalled on Pericles' motion (but see CIMON), was empowered to make peace with Sparta on the basis of the status quo. For a while the old anti-Persian policy again found favour in Athens, and Cimon led a great expedition against Cyprus; but on Cimon's death hostilities were suspended, and a lasting arrangement with Persia was brought about. It was probably in order to mark the definite conclusion of the Persian War and to obtain recognition for Athens' work in punish.. the Mede that Pericles now proposed a pan-Hellenic congress at Athens to consult about the rebuilding of the ruined temples and the policing of the seas; but owing to the refusal of Sparta the project fell through. Pericles may now have hoped to resume his aggressive policy in Greece Proper, but the events of the following years completely disillusioned him. In 447 an Athenian army, which had marched into Boeotia to quell an insurrection, had to surrender in a body at Coronea, and the price of their ransom was the evacuation of Boeotia. Upon news of this disaster Phocis, Locris and Euboea revolted, and the Megarians massacred their Athenian garrison, while a Spartan army penetrated into Attica as far as Eleusis. In this crisis Pericles induced the Spartan leaders to retreat, apparently by means of a bribe, and hastened to reconquer Euboea; but the other land possessions could not be recovered, and in a thirty years' truce which was arranged in 445 Athens definitely renounced her predominance in Greece Proper. Pericles' foreign policy henceforward underwent a profound change-to consolidate the naval supremacy, or to extend it by a cautious advance, remained his only ambition. The chronology of these years down to 449 is not quite certain. also belongs to this year; there is also evidence that Athens inter4 An abortive expedition to reinstate a Thessalian prince probably fered in a war between Selinus and Segesta in Sicily about this time. 5 The peace of Callias" is perhaps a fiction of the 4th century orators. All the earlier evidence goes to show that only an informal understanding was arrived at, based on the de facto inability of either power to cripple the other (see CIMON). 2 The later eminence of Pericles has probably misled historians into exaggerating his influence at this time. Even the Const. Ath. (ch. 27) says that Pericles took some 6 prerogatives from the Areopagus; this looks like a conjecture based on Arist. Pol. ii. 9 (12), 1273; τὴν ἐν ̓Αρείῳ πάγῳ βουλὴν Εφιάλτης ἐκόλουσε καὶ Περικλῆς, a passage which really proves nothing. Plutarch, who is clearly blinded by Pericles' subsequent brilliance, makes him suddenly burst into prominence and hold the highest place for 40 years (i.e. from 469); he degrades Ephialtes into a tool of Pericles. 448 seems the most likely date. Before 460 Pericles' influence was as yet too small; 460-451 were years of war. After 445 Athens was hardly in a position to summon such a congress, and would not have sent 10 envoys out of 20 to northern and central Greece, where she had just lost all her influence; nor is it likely that the building of the Parthenon (begun not later than 447) was entered on before the congress. While scouting the projects of the extreme Radicals for interfering | in distant countries, he occasionally made a display of Athens' power abroad, as in his expedition to the Black Sea,1 and in the colonization of Thurii,2 which marks the resumption of a❘ Western policy. diThe peaceful development of Athenian power was interrupted by the revolt of Samos in 440. Pericles himself led out a fleet against the seceders and, after winning a first engagement, unwisely divided his armament and allowed one squadron to be routed. In a subsequent battle he retrieved this disaster, and after a long blockade reduced the town itself. A demand for help which the Samians sent to Sparta was rejected at the instance of the Corinthians. League, had become inevitable. In the following spring he fastened a quarrel upon Potidaea, a town in Chalcidice, which was attached by ancient bonds to Corinth, and in the campaign which followed Athenian and Corinthian troops came to blows. A further casus belli was provided by a decree forbidding the importation of Megarian goods into the Athenian Empire, presumably in order to punish Megara for her alliance with Corinth (spring 432). The combined complaints of the injured parties led Sparta to summon a Peloponnesian congress which decided on war against Athens, failing a concession to Megara and Corinth (autumn 432). In this crisis Pericles persuaded the wavering assembly that compromise was useless, because Sparta was resolved to precipitate a war in any case. A further embassy calling upon the Athenians to expel the accursed family of the Alcmaeonidae, clearly aimed at Pericles himself as its chief representative, was left unheeded, and early in 431 hostilities began between Athens and Sparta and their respective allies Turning to Pericles' policy towards the members of the Delian League, we find that he frankly endeavoured to turn the allies into subjects (see DELIAN LEAGUE). A special feature of his rule was the sending out of numerous cleruchies (q.v.), which served to Athens and converting the needy proletariate of the capital into owners of real property. The land was acquired either by confiscation from disaffected states or in exchange for a lowering of tribute. The chief cleruchies of Pericles are: Thracian Chersonese (453-452), Lemnos and Imbros, Andros, Naxos and Eretria (before 447); 3 Brea in Thrace (446); Oreus (445); Amisus and Astacus in the Black Sea (after 440); Aegina (431). the double purpose of securing strategic points (see PELOPONNESIAN WAR). 3 In his home policy Pericles carried out more fully Ephialtes' project of making the Athenian people truly self-governing. His chief innovation was the introduction of payment from the public treasury for state service. Chief of all, he provided a remuneration of 1 to 2 obols a day for the jurymen, probably in 451. Similarly he created a"theoricon" fund which enabled poor citizens to attend the dramatic representations of the Dionysia. To him we may also attribute the 3 obols pay which the soldiers received during the Peloponnesian War in addition to the old-established provision-money. The archons and members of the boulê, who certainly received remuneration in 411, and also some minor magistrates, were perhaps paid for the first time by Pericles. In connexion with this system of salaries should be mentioned a somewhat reactionary law carried by Pericles in 451, by which an Athenian parentage on both sides was made an express condition of retaining the franchise and with it the right of sitting on paid juries. The measure by which the archonship was opened to the third and (practically) to the fourth class of citizens (the Zeugitae and Thetes) may also be due to Pericles; the date is now known to be 457 (Const. Ath. 26; and see ARCHON). The last years of his life were troubled by a new period of storm and stress which called for his highest powers of calculation and self-control. A conflict between Corcyra and Corinth, the second and third naval powers of Greece, led to the simultaneous appearance in Athens of an embassy from either combatant (433). Pericles had, as it seems, resumed of late a plan of Western expansion by forming alliances with Rhegium and Leontini, and the favourable position of Corcyra on the traderoute to Sicily and Italy, as well as its powerful fleet, no doubt helped to induce him to secure an alliance with that island, and so to commit an unfriendly act towards a leading representative of the Peloponnesian League. Pericles now seemed to have made up his mind that war with Sparta, the head of that 1 The date can hardly be fixed; probably it was after 440. At the same time, Pericles was being sorely hampered by his adversaries at home. The orthodox Conservatives and some democrats who were jealous of his influence, while afraid to beard the great statesman himself, combined to assail his nearest friends. The sculptor Pheidias (q.v.) was prosecuted on two vexatious charges (probably in 433), and before he could disprove the second he died under arrest. Anaxagoras was threatened with a law against atheists, and felt compelled to leave Athens. A scandalous charge against his mistress Aspasia, which he defeated by his personal intercession before the court, was taken very much to heart by Pericles. His position at home scarcely improved during the war. His policy of abandoning the land defence was unpopular with the land-owning section of the people, who from the walls of Athens could see their own property destroyed by the invaders. At the end of the first year of war (early in 430) Pericles made a great appeal to the pride of his countrymen in his well-known funeral speech. But in the ensuing summer, after a terrible outbreak of plague had ravaged the crowded city, the people became thoroughly demoralized. Pericles led a large squadron to harry the coasts of the Peloponnese, but met with little success. On his return the Athenians sued for peace, though without success, and a speech by Pericles had little effect on their spirits. Late in 430 they deposed him from his magistracy. In addition to this they prosecuted him on a charge of embezzlement, and imposed a fine of 50 talents. A revulsion of feeling soon led to his reinstatement, apparently with extraordinary powers. But the plague, which had carried off two of his sons and a sister, had left its mark also on Pericles himself. In the autumn of 429 he died and was buried near the Academia, where Pausanias (150 A.D.) saw his tomb. A slightly idealized portrait of Pericles. as strategus is preserved to us in the British Museum bust, No. 549, which is a good copy of the well-known bronze original by Cresilas. If we now endeavour to give a general estimate of Pericles' character and achievements, it will be well to consider the many departments of his activity one by one. In his foreign policy Pericles differs from those statesmen of previous generations who sought above all the welfare of Greece as a whole. His standpoint was at all times purely Athenian. Nor did he combine great statesmanlike qualities with exceptional ability in the field. We may clearly distinguish two periods in his administration of foreign affairs. At first, joining to Cimon's antiPersian ambitions and Themistocles' schemes of Western expan 2 It has been doubted whether Pericles favoured this enterprise, but among its chief promoters were two of his friends, Lamponsion a new policy of aggression on the mainland, he endeavoured the soothsayer and Hippodamus the architect. The oligarch Cratinus (in a frag. of the puyades) violently attacks the whole project. These dates are suggested by the decrease of tribute which the inscriptions prove for this year. This is the date given by the Const. Ath., which also mentions a diandioμds Tŵv dikασTŵov] (Blass' restoration) in frag. c. 18. The confused story of Philochorus and Plutarch, by which 4760 citizens were disfranchised or even sold into slavery in 445, when an Egyptian prince sent a largess of corn, may refer to a subsequent application of Pericles' law, though probably on a much milder scale than is here represented. to push forward Athenian power in every direction, and engaged himself alike in Greece Proper, in the Levant and in Sicily. After Cimon's death he renounced the war against Persia, and the collapse of 447-445 had the effect of completing his change 5 The general impression in Greece was that this decree was the proximate cause of the war. The scurrilous motives which Aristophanes suggests for this measure can be entirely disregarded. His dying boast, that "no Athenian had put on mourning through his doing," perhaps refers to his forbearance towards his political rivals, whom he refused to ruin by prosecution. of attitude. Henceforward he repressed all projects of reckless enterprise, and confined himself to the gradual expansion and consolidation of the empire. It is not quite easy to see why he abandoned this successful policy in order to hasten on a war with Sparta, and neither the Corcyrean alliance nor the Megarian decree seems justified by the facts as known to us, though commercial motives may have played a part which we cannot now gauge. In his adoption of a purely defensive policy at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War, he miscalculated the temper of the Athenians, whose morale would have been better sustained by a greater show of activity. But in the main his policy in 431-429 was sound, and the disasters of the war cannot fairly be laid to his charge. The foundation of cleruchies was an admirable device, which in many ways anticipated the colonial system of the Romans. In his attitude towards the members of the Delian League Pericles likewise maintained a purely Athenian point of view. But he could hardly be said seriously to have oppressed the subject cities, and technically all the League money was spent on League business, for Athena, to whom the chief monuments in Athens were reared, was the patron goddess of the League. Under Pericles Athens also attained her greatest measure of commercial prosperity, and the activity of her traders all over the Levant, the Black Sea and the West, is attested not only by literary authority, but also by numerous Attic coins, vases, &c. Pericles' home policy has been much debated since ancient times. His chief enactments relate to the payment of citizens for State service. These measures have been interpreted as an appeal to the baser instincts of the mob, but this assumption is entirely out of keeping with all we know of Pericles' general attitude towards the people, over whom Thucydides says he practically ruled as a king. We must, then, admit that Pericles sincerely contemplated the good of his fellow-countrymen, and we may believe that he endeavoured to realize that ideal Athens which Thucydides sketches in the Funeral Speech-an Athens where free and intelligent obedience is rendered to an equitable code of laws, where merit finds its way to the front, where military efficiency is found along with a free development in other directions and strangles neither commerce nor art. In accordance with this scheme Pericles sought to educate the whole community to political wisdom by giving to all an active share in the government, and to train their aesthetic tastes by making accessible the best drama and music. It was most unfortunate that the Peloponnesian War ruined this great project by diverting the large supplies of money which were essential to it, and confronting the remodelled Athenian democracy, before it could dispense with his tutelage, with a series of intricate questions of foreign policy which, in view of its inexperience, it could hardly have been expected to grapple with successfully. Pericles also incurred unpopularity because of his rationalism in religious matters; yet Athens in his time was becoming ripe for the new culture, and would have done better to receive it from men of his circle-Anaxagoras, Zeno, Protagoras and Meton -than from the more irresponsible sophists. The influence of Aspasia on Athenian thought, though denounced unsparingly by most critics, may indeed have been beneficial, inasmuch as it tended towards the emancipation of the Attic woman from the over-strict tutelage in which she was kept. As a patron of art Pericles was a still greater force. His policy in encouraging the drama has already been mentioned: among his friends he could count three of the greatest Greek writers-the poet Sophocles and the historians Herodotus and Thucydides. Pericles likewise is responsible for the epoch-making splendour of Attic art in his time, for had he not so fully appreciated and given such free scope to the genius of Pheidias, Athens would hardly have witnessed the raising of the Parthenon and other glorious structures, and Attic art could not have boasted a legion of first-rate sculptors of whom Alcamenes, Agoracritus and Paeonius are only the chief names. (See also GREEK ART.) Of Pericles' personal characteristics we have a peculiarly full 147 and interesting record. He was commonly compared to Olympian Zeus, partly because of his serene and dignified bearing, partly by reason of the majestic roll of the thundering eloquence, with its bold poetical imagery, with which he held friend and foe spellbound. The same dignity appeared in the grave beauty of his features, though the abnormal height of his cranium afforded an opportunity for ridicule of which the comedians made full use. In spite of an unusually large crop of scandals about him we cannot but believe that he bore an honourable character, and his integrity is vouched for by Thucydides in such strong terms as to exclude all further doubt on the question. ANCIENT AUTHORITIES.-Our chief source must always remain Thucydides (i. and ii. 1-65), whose insight into the character and ideals of Pericles places him far above all other authorities. The speeches which he puts into his mouth are of special value in disclosing to us Pericles' inmost thoughts and aspirations (i. 140-144; ii. 35-46; ii. 60-64). Thucydides alone shows sympathy with Pericles, though, as J. B. Bury points out (Ancient Greek Historians, other 5th-century sources, Aristophanes is obviously a caricaturist, 1909, pp. 133 seq.), he was by no means a blind admirer. Of pseudo-Xenophon (de republica Atheniensium) a mere party pamphleteer. Plato, while admiring Pericles' intellect, accuses him of pandering to the mob; Aristotle in his Politics and especially in the Constitution of Athens, which is valuable in that it gives the dates of Pericles' enactments as derived from an official document, accepts the same view. Plutarch (Pericles) gives many interesting details as to Pericles' personal bearing, home life, and patronage of art, literature and philosophy, derived in part from the old comic poets, Aristophanes, Cratinus, Eupolis, Hermippus, Plato and Teleclides; in part from the contemporary memoirs of Stesimbrotus and Ion of Chios. At the same time he reproduces their scandalous anecdotes in a quite uncritical spirit, and accepts unquestioningly the 4th-century tradition. He quotes Aristotle, and Duris of Samos, and is also indebted through some Alexandrine Heraclides Ponticus, Aeschines Socraticus, Idomeneus of Lampsacus intermediary to Ephorus and Theopompus. Diodorus (xi. and xii.), who copied Ephorus, contains nothing of value. MODERN WORKS.-Historians are agreed that Pericles was one of allow him to have been a man of probity. J. Beloch, Griech. Gesch. the most powerful personalities of ancient times, and generally vols. i. and ii. (Strassburg and Bonn, 1893-1896), and Die attische Politik seit Perikles (Leipzig, 1884) takes the most disparaging view; E. Abbott, Greek Hist., vol. ii. (London, 1892), and M. Duncker, Gesch. d. Altertums, vols. viii., ix. (Leipzig, 1884-1886), are on the whole unfavourable; Adolf Schmidt, Das Perikleische Zeitalter (Jena,_1877), V. Duruy, History of Greece (Eng. trans., London, 1892), G. Busolt, Griech. Gesch., vol. iii. (Gotha, 1897, 1904), and E. Meyer, Gesch. d. Altertums, vols. iii. and iv. (Stuttgart, 1901), Forschungen, vol.ii. (Halle, J. B. Bury and E. Curtius, Hist. of Greece (Eng. trans., vols. ii. and iii., 1899; London, 1902), apportion praise and blame more equally; London, 1869, 1870), A. Holm, Hist. of Greece (Eng. trans., vol. ii., London, 1895), W. Lloyd, The Age of Pericles (London, 1875), and especially G. Grote, Hist. of Greece, vols. iv. and v. (see also additional notes in the edition by J. M. Mitchell and M. Caspari, 1907) take a favourable view. For Pericles' buildings, see C. Wachsmuth, Gesch. d. Stadt Athen, i. 516-560 (Leipzig, 1874); E. A. Gardner, Ancient Athens (London, 1902), for his strategy, H. Delbrück, Die Strateg. d. Perikles (Berlin, 1890). See ATHENS: History; GREECE: Ancient History; and GREEK ART. (M. O. B. C.) PERIDOT, sometimes written peridote, a name applied by jewelers to "noble olivine," or that kind of olivine which can be used as a gem-stone (see OLIVINE). The word peridot is an old trade-term, of unknown origin, used by French jewelers and introduced into science by J. R. Haüy. Peridot is practically the same stone as chrysolite (q.v.), though it is convenient to restrict that term to transparent olivine of pale yellowish green colour, and to apply the term peridot to those kinds which are darker and decidedly green: the colour, which is due to the presence of ferrous iron, is never vivid, like that of emerald, but is usually some shade of olive-, pistachio- or leek-green. Although the stone is sometimes cut en cabochon, and in roseform, the cutting best adapted to display the colour is that of a table or a step-cut stone. Unfortunately the hardness of peridot is only about 6.5, or but little above that of glass, so that the polished stone readily suffers abrasion by wear. In polishing peridot the final touch is given on a copper wheel moistened with sulphuric acid. Although olivine has a fairly wide distribution in nature, the varieties used as gem-stones are of very limited occurrence. Much mystery for a long time surrounded the locality which |