hornblende, with much olivine; there may also be augite_which is yields most of the peridot of commerce but it is now identified | actinolite are very frequent. Other rocks contain dark brown with the island of St John, or Isle Zeboiget, in the Red Sea, where it occurs, as shown by M. J. Couyat, in an altered dunite, or olivine rock (Bull soc. franç. min., 1908). This is probably the Topaz Isle, Tоñáčios vĥσos, of the ancients. It is generally held that the mineral now called topaz was unknown to ancient and mediaeval writers, and that their Tоrátov was our peridot. Such was probably the Hebrew pitdah, translated topaz in the Old Testament. Dr G. F. Kunz has suggested that the peridots of modern trade are largely derived from old jewelry. The famous shrine of the Three Kings in Cologne Cathedral contains a large peridot, which has commonly been regarded as an emerald. It is notable that pebbles of transparent olivine, fit for cutting, are found in the United States in Montana, Arizona and New Mexico; in consequence of their shape and curiously pitted surface they are known as " Job's tears." (F. W. R.*) PERIDOTITE, a plutonic holo-crystalline rock composed in large part of olivine, and almost or entirely free from feldspar. The rocks are the most basic, or least siliceous plutonic rocks, and contain much iron oxide and magnesia. Hence they have dark colours and a high specific gravity (3.0 and over). They weather readily and are changed to serpentine, in which process water is absorbed and enters into chemical combination with the silicates of magnesia and iron. In some peridotites, such as the dunites, olivine greatly preponderates over all other minerals. It is always in small, rather rounded crystals without good crystalline form, and pale green in colour. Most of the rocks of this group, however, contain other silicates such as augite, hornblende, biotite or rhombic pyroxene, and often two or three of these are present. By the various mineral combinations different species are produced, e.g. mica-peridotite, hornblende-peridotite, enstatite-peridotite. Of the accessory minerals the commonest are iron oxides and chromite or picotite. In some peridotites these form segregations or irregular masses which are of importance as sources of the ores of chromium. Corundum occurs in small crystals in many North American peridotites and platinum and the nickel-iron compound awaruite are found in rocks of this class in New Zealand. Red garnet (pyrope) characterizes the peridotites of Bohemia. The diamond mines of South Africa are situated in pipes or volcanic necks occupied by a peridotite breccia which has been called kimberlite. In this rock in addition to diamond the following minerals are found, hypersthene, garnet, biotite, pyroxene (chromediopside), ilmenite, zircon, &c. Some peridotites have a granular structure, e.g. the dunites, all the crystal grains being of rounded shape and nearly equal size; a few are porphyritic with large individuals of diallage, augite or hypersthene. Some are banded with parallel bands of dissimilar composition, the result probably of fluxion in a magma which was not quite homogeneous. The great majority of the rocks of this group are poikilitic, that is to say, they contain olivine in small rounded crystals embedded in large irregular masses of pyroxene or hornblende. The structure is not unlike that known as ophitic in the dolerites, and arises from the olivine having first separated out of the liquid magma while the pyroxene or amphibole succeeded it and caught up its crystals. In hand specimens of the rocks the smooth and shining cleavage surfaces of hornblende and augite are dotted over with dull blackish green spots of olivine; to this appearance the name lustre-mottling " has been given. Mica-peridotites are not of frequent occurrence. A well-known rock from Kaltes Thal, Harzburg, contains much biotite, deep brown in thin section. Other examples are found in India and in Arkansas. Poikilitic structure is rarely well developed in this group. The blue-ground" of Kimberley which contains the diamonds is a brecciform biotite-hypersthene-peridotite with augite. In the north of Scotland, in several places in Sutherland and Ross, there are peridotites with silvery yellow green biotite and large plates of pale green hornblende: these have been called scyelites. In the hornblende-peridotites lustre-mottling is often very striking. The amphibole may be colourless tremolite in small prisms, as in some varieties of serpentine from the Lizard (Cornwall); or pale green hornblende as in scyelite. In both these cases there is some probability that the hornblende has developed, partly at least, from olivine or augite. In sheared peridotites tremolite and The enstatite-peridotites are an important group represented in many parts of the world. Their rhombic pyroxene is often very pale coloured but may then be filled with platy enclosures which give it a metallic or bronzy lustre. These rocks have been called saxonites or harzburgites. When weathered the enstatite passes into platy masses of bastite. Picotite and chromite are common accessory minerals and diallage or hornblende may also be present. Many of the serpentine rocks of the Lizard (Cornwall) Ayrshire and north-western Scotland are of this type. Examples are known also from Baste near Harzburg, New York and Maryland, Norway, Finland, New Zealand, &c. Often the enstatite crystals are of large size and are very conspicuous in the hand specimens. They may be porphyritic, or may form a coarsely crystalline matrix enclosing innumerable olivine grains, and then lustre-mottling is as a rule very well shown. The lherzolites are rocks, first described from Lherz in the Pyrenees, consisting of olivine, chrome-diopside and enstatite, and accessory picotite or chromite. They are fine-grained, bright green in colour, often very fresh, and may be somewhat granulitic. The dunites are peridotites, similar to the rock of Dun Mountain, New Zealand, composed essentially of olivine in a finely granular condition. Many examples of this type are known in different parts of the world, usually as local facies of other kinds of peridotite. In olivine-basalts of Tertiary age in the Rhine district small nodules and may be a foot in diameter. The structure is granular and of green olivine occur frequently. They are of rounded shapes in addition to olivine they may contain chromite, spinel and magnetite, enstatite and chrome-diopside. Some geologists believe these to be fragments of dunite detached from masses of that rock not exposed at the surface; others consider that they are aggregations of the early minerals of the basalt magma, which were already crystallized before the liquid rock was emitted. The great majority of stony or lithoidal meteorites (aerolites) are rich in olivine and present many analogies to the terrestrial peridotites. Among their minerals are hypersthene (enstatite) augite and chrome-diopside, chromite, pyrite and troilite, nickeliferous iron and basic plagioclase feldspar. The structure of these meteorites is described as chondritic "; their minerals often occur as small rounded grains arranged in radiate clusters; this has very rarely been observed in ordinary peridotites. 66 Although many peridotites are known in which the constituent minerals are excellently preserved, the majority show more or less advanced decomposition. The olivine is especially unstable and is altered to serpentine, while augite, hornblende and biotite are in large measure fresh. In other cases the whole rock is changed arise in this way. to an aggregate of secondary products. Most serpentines (q.v.) (J. S. F.) PÉRIER, CASIMIR PIERRE (1777-1832), French statesman, was born at Grenoble on the 11th of October 1777, the fourth son of a rich banker and manufacturer, Claude Périer (17421801), in whose house the estates of Dauphiny met in 1788. Claude Périer was one of the first directors of the Bank of France; of his eight sons, Augustin (1773-1833), Antoine Scipion (1776– 1821), Casimir Pierre and Camille (1781-1844), all distinguished themselves in industry and in politics. The family removed to Paris after the revolution of Thermidor, and Casimir joined the army of Italy in 1798. On his father's death he left the PERIGEE (Gr. Tepi, near, y, the earth), in astronomy that point of the moon's orbit or of the sun's apparent orbit at which the moon or sun approach nearest to the earth. The sun's perigee and the earth's perihelion are so related that they differ 180° in longitude, the first being on the line from the earth toward the sun, and the second from the sun toward the earth. The longitude of the solar perigee is now 101°, that of the earth's perihelion 281°. army and with his brother Scipion founded a bank in Paris, | politique (1863), dealing with the interaction of political inthe speculations of which he directed while Scipion occupied stitutions and finance. He contested Grenoble unsuccessfully himself with its administration. He opposed the ruinous in 1863 against the imperial candidate, Casimir Royer; and methods by which the duc de Richelieu sought to raise the war failed again for Aube in 1869. In 1871 he was returned by three indemnity demanded by the Allies, in a pamphlet Réflexions departments to the National Assembly, and elected to sit for sur le projet d'emprunt (1817), followed in the same year by Aube. He was minister of the interior for a few months in Dernières réflexions . . in answer to an inspired article in the 1871-1872, and his retirement deprived Thiers of one of the Moniteur. In the same year he entered the chamber of deputies strongest elements in his cabinet. He also joined the shortfor Paris, taking his seat in the Left Centre with the moderate lived ministry of May 1873. He consistently opposed all efforts opposition, and making his first speech in defence of the freedom in the direction of a monarchical restoration, but on the definite of the press. Re-elected for Paris in 1822 and 1824, and in constitution of the republic became a life senator, declining 1827 for Paris and for Troyes, he elected to represent Troyes, MacMahon's invitation to form the first cabinet under the new and sat for that constituency until his death. Périer's violence constitution. He died in Paris on the 6th of June 1876. in debate was not associated with any disloyalty to the monarchy, For the family in general see E. Choulet, La Famille Casimirand he held resolutely aloof from the republican conspiracies Périer (Grenoble, 1894). and intrigues which prepared the way for the revolution of 1830. Under the Martignac ministry there was some prospect of a reconciliation with the court, and in January 1829 he was nominated a candidate for the presidency of the chamber; but in August with the elevation to power of Polignac the truce ceased, and on the 15th of March 1830 he was one of the 221 deputies who repudiated the pretensions put forward by Charles X. Averse by instinct and by interest to popular revolution he nevertheless sat on the provisory commission of five at the hôtel-de-ville during the days of July, but he refused to sign the declaration of Charles X.'s dethronement. Périer reluctantly recognized in the government of Louis Philippe the only alternative to the continuance of the Revolution; but he was no favourite with the new king, whom he scorned for his truckling to the mob. He became president of the chamber of deputies, and sat for a few months in the cabinet, though without a portfolio. On | the fall of the weak and discredited ministry of Laffitte, Casimir Périer, who had drifted more and more to the Right, was summoned to power (March 13, 1831), and in the short space of a year he restored civic order in France and re-established her credit in Europe. Paris was in a constant state of disturbance from March to September, and was only held in check by the premier's determination; the workmen's revolt at Lyons was suppressed after hard fighting; and at Grenoble, in face of the quarrels between the military and the inhabitants, Périer declined to make any concession to the townsfolk. The minister refused to be dragged into armed intervention in favour of the revolutionary government of Warsaw, but his policy of peace did not exclude energetic demonstrations in support of French interests. He constituted France the protector of Belgium by the prompt expedition of the army of the north against the Dutch in August 1831; French influence in Italy was asserted by the audacious occupation of Ancona (Feb. 23, 1832); and the refusal of compensation for injuries to French residents by the Portuguese government was followed by a naval demonstration at Lisbon. Périer had undertaken the premiership with many forebodings, and overwork and anxiety prepared the way for disease. In the spring of 1832 during the cholera outbreak in Paris, he visited the hospitals in company with the duke of Orleans. He fell ill the next day of a violent fever, and died six weeks later, on the 16th of May 1832. His Opinions et discours were edited by A. Lesieur (2 vols., 1838); C. Nicoullaud published in 1894 the first part (Casimir-Périer, député de l'opposition, 1817-1830) of a study of his life and policy; and his ministry is exhaustively treated by Thureau-Dangin in vols. i. and ii. (1884) of his Histoire de la monarchie de juillet. His elder son, AUGUSTE VICTOR LAURENT CASIMIR PÉRIER (1811-1876), the father of President Casimir-Périer (see CASIMIRPÉRIER), entered the diplomatic service, being attached successively to the London, Brussels and St Petersburg embassies, and in 1843 became minister plenipotentiary at Hanover In 1846 he resigned from the service to enter the legislature as deputy for the department of Seine, a constituency which he exchanged for Aube after the Revolution of 1848. On the establishment of the Second Empire he retired temporarily from public life, and devoted himself to economic questions on which he published a series of works, notably Les Finances et la PÉRIGORD, one of the old provinces of France, formed part of the military government of Guienne and Gascony, and was bounded on the N. by Angoumois, on the E. by Limousin and Quercy, on the S. by Agenais and Bazadais, and on the W. by Bordelais and Saintonge. It is now represented by the departments of Dordogne and part of Lot-et-Garonne. Périgord was in two divisions: Périgord blanc (cap. Périgueux) and Périgord noir (cap. Sarlat). In the time of Caesar it formed the civitas Petrocoriorum, with Vesunna (Périgueux) as its capital. It became later part of Aquitania secunda and formed the pagus petragoricus, afterwards the diocese of Périgueux. Since the 8th century it had its own counts (see the Histoire généalogique of P. Anselme, tome iii.), who were feudatories of the dukes of Aquitaine and in the 13th century were the vassals of the king of England. In the 15th century the county passed into the hands of the dukes of Orleans, and in the 16th came to the family of d'Albret, becoming Crown land again on the accession of Henry IV. See Dessalles, Histoire du Périgord (1888), the Bulletin of the Société historique et archéologique du Périgord (1874 seq.), l'Inventaire sommaire de la " Collection de Périgord "in the Bibliothèque nationale (1874); the Dictionnaire topographique du département de la Dordogne by the Vicomte de Gourgues (1873). PÉRIGUEUX, a town of south-western France, formerly capital of the old province of Périgord, now chief town of the department of Dordogne, 79 m. E.N.E. of Bordeaux, on the railway between that city and Limoges. Pop. (1906), 28,199. The town, situated on an eminence on the right bank of the Isle, is divided into three parts. On the slope of the hill is the medieval town, bordered south-east by the river and on the other three sides by esplanades and promenades; to the west is the modern town, which stretches to the station; to the south of the modern town is the old Roman town or cité, now traversed by the railway. Three bridges connect Périgueux with the left bank of the Isle, where stood Vesunna, the capital of the Petrocorii. Hardly a trace of this old Gallic town remains, but not far off, on the Plateau de la Boissière, the rampart of the old Roman camp can still be traced. On the right bank of the Isle, in the Roman city, there have been discovered some baths of the 1st or 2nd century, supplied by an aqueduct four miles long, which spanned the Isle. A circular building, called the "Tower of Vesunna," 68 ft. in diameter and 89 ft. in height, stands at what was formerly the centre of the city, where all the chief streets met It is believed to have been originally the cella or main part of a temple, probably dedicated to the tutelary deities of Vesunna. Of the amphitheatre there still remain huge fragments of wall and vaulting. The building had a diameter of 1312 ft., that of the arena being 870 ft.; and, judging from its construction, of Périgueux used it for their château, and lived in it from the 12th to the end of the 14th century. In 1644 it was given over by the town to the Order of the Visitation, and the sisters took from it the stones required for the construction of their nunnery. The most remarkable, however, of the ruins of the cité is the Château Barrière, an example of the fortified houses formerly common there. Two of its towers date from the 3rd or 4th century, and formed part of the fortified enceinte; the highest tower is of the 10th century; and the part now inhabited is of the 11th or 12th century, and was formerly used as a burial chapel. The bulk of the château is of the 12th, and some of the windows of the 16th century. The chief medieval building in the cité is the church of St Étienne, once the cathedral. It dates from the 11th and 12th centuries, but suffered much injury at the hands of the Protestants in the religious wars when the tower and two of the three cupolas were destroyed. The choir and its cupola were skilfully restored in the 17th century. A fine carved wooden reredos of the 17th century and a tomb of a bishop of the 12th century are to be seen in the interior. In the medieval | town, known as Le Puy-St-Front, the most remarkable building is the cathedral of St Front, which, till its restoration, or rather rebuilding, in the latter half of the 19th century when the old features were to a great extent lost, was of unique architectural value. It bears a striking resemblance to the Byzantine churches and to St Mark's at Venice, and according to one theory was built from 984 to 1047, contemporaneously with the latter (977-1085). It consists of five great cupolas, arranged in the form of a Greek cross, and conspicuous from the outside. The arms of the cross are 69 ft. in width, and the whole is 184 ft. long. These cupolas, 89 ft. high from the keystone to the ground, are supported on a vaulted roof with pointed arches after the manner characteristic of Byzantine architecture. The pointed arches imitated from it prepared the way for the introduction of the Gothic style. Adjoining St Front on the west are the remains of an old basilica of the 6th century, above which rises the belfry, the only one in the Byzantine style now extant. It dates from the 11th century, and is composed of two massive cubes, placed the one above the other in retreat, with a circular colonnade surmounted by a dome. To the south-west of St Front, the buildings of an old abbey (11th to 16th century) surround a cloister dating chiefly from the 13th century. Of the fortifications of Puy St Front, the chief relic is the Tour Mataguerre (14th century). a stronghold of the Calvinists, who in 1575 did great destruction there, and it also suffered during the troubles of the Fronde. PERIHELION (Gr. Tepi, near, λios, sun), in astronomy, the point of nearest approach of a body to the sun. (See ORBIT.) PERIM, a British island in the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, at the entrance to the Red Sea, and 96 m. W. by S. of Aden. Perim is 2 m. from the Arabian shore, is about 3 m. long with an average breadth of over a mile and covers some 7 sq. m. There is a good harbour with easy entrance on the south side with a depth of water from 25 to 30 ft. It is largely used by mercantile vessels as a coaling-station and for taking in stores, including fresh water and ice. Perim, the Diodoros island of the Periplus, was, in consequence of the French occupation of Egypt, garrisoned from 1799 to 1801 by a British force. In view of the construction of the Suez Canal and the increasing importance of the Red Sea route to India the island was annexed to Great Britain in 1857, fortified and placed under the charge of the Aden residency. In 1861 a lighthouse was built at its eastern end. Submarine cables connect the island with Aden, Egypt and Zanzibar. Population, including a garrison of 50 sepoys, about 200. PERINO DEL VAGA (1500-1547), a painter of the Roman school, whose true name was PERINO (or PIERO) BUONACCORSI. He was born near Florence on the 28th of June 1500. His father ruined himself by gambling, and became a soldier in the invading army of Charles VIII. His mother dying when he was but two months old, he was suckled by a she-goat; but shortly afterwards he was taken up by his father's second wife. Perino was first apprenticed to a druggist, but soon passed into the hands of a mediocre painter, Andrea da Ceri, and, when eleven years of age, of Ridolfo Ghirlandajo. Perino rapidly surpassed his fellow-pupils, applying himself especially to the study of Michelangelo's great cartoon. Another mediocre painter, Vaga from Toscanella, undertook to settle the boy in Rome, but first set him to work in Toscanella. Perino, when he at last reached Rome, was utterly poor, and with no clear prospect beyond journey-work for trading decorators. He, however, studied with great severity and spirit from Michelangelo and the antique, and was eventually entrusted with some of the subordinate work undertaken by Raphael in the Vatican. He assisted Giovanni da Udine in the stucco and arabesque decorations of the loggie of the Vatican, and executed some of those small but finely composed scriptural subjects which go by the name of " Raphael's Bible "- Raphael himself furnishing the designs. Perino's examples are: Abraham about to sacrifice Isaac," "Jacob wrestling with the Angel," "Joseph and his Brethren," the "Hebrews crossing the Jordan," the Périgueux is seat of a bishop, prefect and court of assizes, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. Its educational establishments include a lycée for boys, training" Fall and Capture of Jericho," "Joshua commanding the Sun colleges for both sexes and a school of drawing. The trade of the town is in pigs, truffles, flour, brandy, poultry and pies known as pâtés de Périgord. Vesunna was the capital of the Petrocorii, allies of Vercingetorix when Caesar invaded Gaul. The country was afterwards occupied by the Romans, who built a second city of Vesunna on the right bank of the Isle opposite the site of the Gallic town. The barbarian invasion brought this prosperity to a close. St Front preached Christianity here in the 4th century and over his tomb there was raised a monastery, which became the centre of the new town called Le Puy St Front. The cité was pillaged by the Saracens about 731, and in 844 the Normans devastated both quarters. The new town soon began to rival the old city | in importance, and it was not until 1240 that the attempts of the counts of Périgord and the bishops to infringe on their municipal privileges brought about a treaty of union. During the Hundred Years' War, Périgueux was twice attacked by the English, who took the cité in 1356; and the whole town was ceded to them by the Treaty of Brétigny, but returned to the French Crown in the reign of Charles V. The county passed by marriage into the hands of Anthony of Bourbon, father of Henry IV., and was converted by the latter into royal domain. During the Huguenot wars Périgueux was frequently to stand still," the "Birth of Christ," "His Baptism" and the "Last Supper." Some of these are in bronze-tint, while others are in full colour. He also painted, after Raphael's drawings, the figures of the planets in the great hall of the Appartamenti Borgia. Perino exhibited very uncommon faculty in these works and was soon regarded as second only to Giulio Romano among the great painter's assistants. To Raphael himself he was always exceedingly respectful and attentive, and the master loved him almost as a son. He executed many other works about Rome, always displaying a certain mixture of the Florentine with the Roman style. After Raphael's death in 1520 a troublous period ensued for Perino, with a plague which ravaged Rome in 1523, and again with the sack of that city in 1527. Then he accepted an invitation to Genoa, where he was employed in decorating the Doria Palace, and rapidly founded a quasi-Roman school of art in the Ligurian city. He ornamented the palace in a style similar to that of Giulio Romano in the Mantuan Palazzo del Tè, and frescoed historical and mythological subjects in the apartments, fanciful and graceful arabesque work, sculptural and architectural details-in short, whatever came to hand. Among the principal works are: the "War between the Gods and Giants," "Horatius Cocles defending the Bridge," and the Fortitude of Mutius Scaevola." The most important work of all, the refugee, who also edited at Amsterdam the Bibliothèque angloise Shipwreck of Acneas," is no longer extant. From Genoa (1717-1719), and subsequently Mémoires littéraires de la Grande Perino twice visited Pisa, and began some painting in the menced his New Memoirs of Literature (1725-1728), a monthly, and Bretagne (1720-1724). Returning to England in 1725, he recomcathedral. Finally he returned to Rome, where Paul III. in 1730 a Literary Journal. Dr Samuel Jebb started Bibliotheca allowed him a regular salary till the painter's death. He literaria (1722-1724), to appear every two months, which dealt retouched many of the works of Raphael, and laboured hard with medals and antiquities as well as with literature, but only ten numbers appeared. The Present State of the Republick of Letters on his own account, undertaking all sorts of jobs, important was commenced by Andrew Reid in January 1728, and completed or trivial. Working for any price, he made large gains, but fell in December 1736. It contained not only excellent reviews of into mechanical negligence. Perino was engaged in the general English books but papers from the works of foreigners. Two decoration of the Sala Reale, begun by Paul III., when his health, Historia literaria (1730-1734) of Archibald Bower. The Bee, or volumes came out each year. It was successful, as also was the undermined by constant work and as constant irregularities, Universal Weekly Pamphlet (1733-1735) of the unfortunate Eustace gave way, and he fell down dead on the 19th of October 1547. Budgell, and the Literary Magazine (1735-1736), with which He is buried in the Pantheon. Ephraim Chambers had much to do, were short-lived. The last named was continued in 1737 as the History of the Works of the Learned, and was carried on without intermission until 1743, when its place was taken by A Literary Journal (Dublin, 1744-1749), the first review published in Ireland. The Museum (1746) of R. Dodsley united the character of a review of books with that of a literary magazine. It came out fortnightly to the 12th of September 1747. Although England can show nothing like the Journal des savants, which has flourished almost without a break for two and a half centuries, a nearly complete series of reviews of English literature may be made up from 1681 to the present day. After the close of the first quarter of the 18th century the literary periodical began to assume more of the style of the modern review, and in 1749 the title and the chief features were united in the Monthly Review, established by Ralph Griffiths, who conducted it until 1803, whence it was edited by his son down to 1825. It came to an end in 1845. From its commencement the Review dealt with science and literature, as well as with literary criticism. It was Whig in politics and Nonconformist in theology. The first series ran from 1749 to December 1789, 81 vols.; the second from 1790 and the fourth from 1831 to 1845, 45 vols., when the magazine to 1815, 108 vols.; the third or new series from 1826 to 1830, 15 vols.; stopped. There is a general index (1749–1789) 3 vols., and another (1790-1816), 2 vols. Perino produced some excellent portraits, and his smaller oil pictures combine with the manner of Raphael something of that of Adrea del Sarto. Many of his works were engraved, even in his own lifetime. Daniele Ricciarelli, Girolamo Siciolante da Sermoneta, Luzio Romano and Marcello Venusti (Mantovano) were among his principal assistants. (W. M. R.) PERINTHUS (Turk. Eski Eregli, old Heraclea), an ancient town of Thrace, on the Propontis, 22 m. W. of Selymbria, strongly situated on a small peninsula on the bay of that name. It is said to have been a Samian colony, founded about 599 B.C. According to Tzetzes, its original name was Mygdonia; later it was called Heraclea (Heraclea Thraciae, Heraclea Perinthus). It is famous chiefly for its stubborn and successful resistance to Philip II. of Macedon in 340; at that time it seems to have been more important than Byzantium itself. PERIOD (Gr. Tepíodos, a going or way round, circuit, Tepi, round, and odos, way, road), a circuit or course of time, a cycle; particularly the duration of time in which a planet revolves round its sun, or a satellite round its primary, a definite or indefinite recurring interval of time marked by some special or peculiar character, e.g. in history, literature, art, &c.; it is so used of a division of geological time. Particular uses of the word are for the various phases through which a disease passes, the termination or conclusion of any course of events, the pause at the end of a completed sentence, and the mark (.) used to signify the same (see PUNCTUATION). PERIODICALS, a general term for literary publications which appear in numbers or parts at regular intervals of time as a rule, weekly, monthly or quarterly. The term strictly includes "newspapers" (q.v.), but in the narrower sense usually intended it is distinguished as a convenient expression for periodical publications which differ from newspapers in not being primarily for the circulation of news or information of ephemeral interest, and in being issued at longer intervals. In modern times the weekly journal has become so much of the nature of a newspaper that it seldom can be called a periodical in this sense. The present article chiefly deals with publications devoted to general literature, literary and critical reviews and magazines for the supply of miscellaneous reading. In the article SOCIETIES (q.v.) an account is separately given of the transactions and proceedings of learned and scientific bodies. Year-books, almanacs, directories and other annuals belong to a distinct type of publication, and are not referred to here. BRITISH The first literary periodical in English was the Mercurius librarius, or a Faithful Account of all Books and Pamphlets (1680), a mere catalogue, published weekly or fortnightly in London, followed by Weekly Memorials for the Ingenious (Jan. 16, 1681-1682 to Jan. 15, 1683), which was more of the type of the Journal des Savants (see under FRANCE below), whence it borrowed many contributions. Of the History of Learning (1691)—another with the same title came out in 1694-only a few numbers appeared, as the conductor, De la Crose, started the monthly Works of the Learned (Aug. 1691 to April 1692), devoted principally to continental scholarship. The monthly Compleat Library (1692 to 1694) was a venture of John Dunton; the monthly Memoirs for the Ingenious (1693), edited by J. de la Crose, ran for 12 months, and another with the same title appeared in the following year, only to enjoy a briefer career. The first periodical of merit and influence was the History of the Works of the Learned (1699-1712), largely consisting of descriptions of foreign books. The Memoirs of Literature, the first English review consisting entirely of original matter, published in London from 1710 to 1714, had for editor Michel de la Roche, a French Protestant The Tory party and the established church were defended in the Critical Review (1756-1817), founded by Archibald Hamilton and supported by Smollett, Dr Johnson and Robertson. Johnson contributed to fifteen numbers of the Literary Magazine (1756-1758). The reviews rapidly increased in number towards the end of the century. Among the principal were the London Review (1775-1780), A New Review (1782-1786), the English Review (1783-1796), incorporated in 1797 with the Analytical Review (1788-1799), the AntiJacobin Review and Magazine (1798-1821), and the British Critic (1793-1843), the organ of the High Church party, and first edited by Archdeacon Nares and Beloe. These periodicals had now become extremely numerous, and many of the leading London publishers found it convenient to maintain their own particular organs. It is not a matter of surprise, therefore, that the authority of Quarterlies. the reviews should have fallen somewhat in public estimation. The time was ripe for one which should be quite independent of the booksellers, and which should also aim at a higher standard of excellence. As far back as 1755 Adam Smith, Blair and others had produced an Edinburgh Review which only ran to two numbers, and in 1773 Gilbert Stuart and William Smellie issued during three years an Edinburgh Magazine and Review. the Edinburgh Review, established in October 1802 by Jeffrey, To Edinburgh is also due the first high-class critical journal, Scott, Horner, Brougham and Sydney Smith. It created a new era in periodical criticism, and assumed from the commencement a wider range and more elevated tone than any of its predecessors. The first editor was Sydney Smith, then Jeffrey for many years, and later editors were Macvey Napier, William Empson, Sir G. C. Lewis, Henry Reeve and the Hon. Arthur Elliot. Its buff and blue cover was adopted from the colours of the Whig party whose political principles it advocated. Among its more famous contributors were Lord Brougham, Sir Walter Scott, Carlyle, Hazlitt and Macaulay. Scott, being dissatisfied with the new review, persuaded John Murray, his London publisher, to start its brilliant Tory competitor, the Quarterly Review (Feb. 1809), first edited by William Gifford, then by Sir J. T. Coleridge, and subsequently by J. G. Lockhart, Rev. Whitwell Elwin, W. M. Macpherson, Sir Wm. Smith, Rowland Prothero and G. W. Prothero. Among the contributors in successive years were Canning, Scott (who reviewed himself), Robert Southey, 1 Archibald Bower (1686-1766) was educated at Douai, and became a Jesuit. He subsequently professed himself a convert to the Anglican Church, and published a number of works, but was more esteemed for his ability than for his moral character. 2 The biographers of Goldsmith have made us familiar with the name of Griffiths (1720-1803), the prosperous publisher, with his diploma of LL.D. granted by an American university, and with the quarrels between him and the poet. most marked feature. Although the frequenters of the clubs and Sir John Barrow, J. Wilson Croker, Isaac Disraeli, A. W. Kinglake, | part of the literature of the 18th century, and in some respects its Lord Salisbury and W. E. Gladstone. The Westminster Review (1824), established by the followers of Jeremy Bentham, advocated radical reforms in church, state and legislation. In 1836 it was joined to the London Review (1829), founded by Sir William Molesworth, and then bore the name of the London and Westminster Review till 1851, when it returned to the original title. Other quarterly reviews worth mentioning are the Eclectic Review (18051868), edited down to 1834 by Josiah Conder (1789-1855) and supported by the Dissenters; the British Review (1811-1825; the Christian Remembrancer (1819-1868); the Retrospective Review (1820-1826, 1828, 1853–1854), for old books; the Foreign Quarterly Review (1827-1846), afterwards incorporated with the Westminster; the Foreign Review (1828-1829); the Dublin Review (1836), a Roman Catholic organ; the Foreign and Colonial Quarterly Review (18431847); the Prospective Review (1845-1855), given up to theology and literature, previously the Christian Teacher (1835-1844); the North British Review (1844-1871); the British Quarterly Review (1845), successor to the British and Foreign Review (1835-1844); the New Quarterly Review (1852-1861), the Scottish Review (1853-1862), published at Glasgow; the Wesleyan London Quarterly Review (1853- ); the National Review (1855-1864); the Diplomatic Review (1855-1881); the Irish Quarterly Review (1851-1859), brought out in Dublin; the Home and Foreign Review (1862–1864); the Fine Arts Quarterly Review (1863-1865); the New Quarterly Magazine (1873-1880); the Catholic Union Review (1863-1874); the Anglican Church Quarterly Review (1875); Mind (1876), dealing with mental philosophy; the Modern Review (1880-1884); the Scottish Review (1882); the Asiatic Quarterly Review (1886; since 1891 the Imperial and Asiatic Quarterly Review); and the Jewish Quarterly Review. The monthly reviews include the Christian Observer (1802-1857), conducted by members of the established church upon evangelical principles, with Zachary Macaulay as the first editor; Monthlies. and the Monthly Repository (1806-1837), originally purely theological, but after coming into the hands of the Rev. W. J. Fox made entirely literary and political. The Fortnightly Review (1865), edited successively by G. H. Lewes, John Morley, T. H. S. Escott, Frank Harris, Oswald Crawfurd and W. L. Courtney, was intended as a kind of English Revue des deux mondes. Since 1866 it has appeared monthly. The Contemporary Review (1866), long edited by Sir Percy Bunting, and the Nineteenth Century (1877), founded and edited by Sir James Knowles (q.v.), and renamed Nineteenth Century and After in 1900, are similar in character, consisting of signed articles by men of mark of all opinions upon questions of the day. The National Review (1883), edited successively by Alfred Austin, W. Earl Hodgson, and L. J. Maxse, is alone in taking editorially a pronounced party line in politics as a Conservative organ. Modern Thought (1879-1884), for the free discussion of political, religious and social subjects, and the Modern Review (1892-1894) may also be mentioned. Other monthlies are the Indian Magazine (1871); the Irish Monthly (Dublin, 1873); the Gaelic Journal (Dublin, 1882); the African Review (1892) and the Empire Review (1900). The Monthly Review (1900-1908), edited till 1904 by Henry Newbolt, was for some years a notable addition to the high class literary monthlies. The weekly reviews dealing generally with literature, science and art are the Literary Gazette (1817-1862), first edited by William Jerdan; the Athenaeum (1828), founded by James Silk Weeklies. Buckingham, but successfully established by C. W. Dilke, and long edited in later years by Norman MacColl (1843-1904), and afterwards by Mr Vernon Rendall; and the Academy (1869). Among those which also include political and social topics, and are more particularly dealt with under NEWSPAPERS, may be mentioned, the Examiner (1808-1881), the Spectator (1828), the Saturday Review (1855), the Scots or National Observer (1888-1897), Outlook (1898), Pilot (1900-1903), and Speaker (1890), which became the Nation. Soon after the introduction of the literary journal in England, one of a more familiar tone was started by the eccentric John Dunton in the Athenian Gazette, or Casuistical Mercury, resolving all the most Nice and Curious Questions (1689-1690 to 1695-1696), afterwards | called The Athenian Mercury, a kind of forerunner of Notes and Queries, being a penny weekly sheet, with a quarterly critical supplement. In the last part the publisher announces that it will be continued as soon as ever the glut of news is a little over." Dunton was assisted by Richard Sault and Samuel Wesley. Defoe's Review (1704-1713) dealt chiefly with politics and commerce, but the introduction in it of what its editor fittingly termed the "scandalous club was another step nearer the papers of Steele and the periodical essayists, the first attempts to create an organized popular opinion in matters of taste and manners. These little papers, rapidly thrown off for a temporary purpose, were destined to form a very important 1 The centenary of the Edinburgh Review was celebrated in an article in October 1902, and that of the Quarterly Review in two articles April and July 1909. See also On the Authorship of the First Hundred Numbers of the Edinburgh Review (1895), by W. A. Copinger, and The First Edinburgh Reviewers in Literary Studies (1879), vol. i., by W. Bagehot. | Tatler (April 12, 1709 to Jan. 2, 1710-1711), Steele, Addison, Swift, Hughes, &c.; Spectator (March 1, 1710-1711 to Dec. 20, 1714), Addison, Steele, Budgell, Hughes, Grove, Pope, Parnell, Swift, &c.; Guardian (March 12, 1713 to Oct. 1, 1713), Steele, Addison, Berkeley, Pope, Tickell, Budgell, &c.; Rambler (March 20, 1750 to March 14, 1752), Johnson; Adventurer (Nov. 7, 1752 to March 9, 1754), Hawkesworth, Johnson, Bathurst, Warton, Chapone; World (Jan. 4, 1753 to Dec. 30, 1756), E. Moore, earl of Chesterfield, R. O. Cambridge, earl of Ŏrford, Soame Jenyns, &c.; Connoisseur (Jan. 31, 1754 to Sept. 30, 1756), Colman, Thornton, Warton, earl of Cork, &c.; Idler (April 15, 1758 to April 5, 1760), Johnson, Sir J. Reynolds and Bennet Langton; Bee (Oct. 6, 1759 to Nov. 24, 1759), O. Goldsmith; Mirror (Jan. 23, 1779 to May 27, 1780), Mackenzie, Craig, Abercromby, Home, Bannatyne, &c.; Lounger (Feb. 5, 1785 to Jan. 6, 1787), Mackenzie, Craig, Abercromby, Tytler; Observer (1785 to 1790), Cumberland; Looker-on (March 10,.1792 to Feb. 1, 1794), W. Roberts, Beresford, Chalmers. Modern As from the "pamphlet of news arose the weekly paper wholly devoted to the circulation of news, so from the general newspaper was specialized the weekly or monthly review of literature, antiquities and science, which, when it included essay-papers, made up the magazine or miscellaneous Magazines. repository of matter for information and amusement. Several monthly publications had come into existence since 1681, but perhaps the first germ of the magazine is to be found in the Gentleman's Journal (1691-1694) of Peter Motteux, which, besides the news of the month, contained miscellaneous prose and poetry. Dr Samuel Jebb included antiquarian notices as well as literary reviews in his Bibliotheca literaria (1722-1724), previously mentioned, but the Gentleman's Magazine, founded in 1731, fully established, through the tact and energy of the publisher Edward Cave (q.v.), the type of the magazine, from that time so marked a feature of English periodical literature. The first idea is due to Motteux, from whom the title, motto and general plan were borrowed. The chief feature in the new venture at first consisted of the analysis of the journals, which Cave undertook personally. Prizes were offered for poetry. In April 1732 the leading metropolitan publishers, jealous of the interloper Cave, started the London Magazine, or Gentleman's Monthly Intelligencer (1732-1784), which had a long and prosperous career. The new magazine closely copied Cave's title, plan and aspect, and bitter war was long waged between the two. The rivalry was not without benefit to the literary public, as the conductors of each used every effort to improve their own review. Cave introduced the practice of giving engravings, maps and portraits, but his greatest success was the addition of Samuel Johnson (q.v.) to the regular staff. This took place in 1738, when the latter wrote the preface to the volume for that year, observing that the magazine had “given rise to almost twenty imitations of it, which are either all dead or very little regarded.' The plan was also imitated in Denmark, Sweden and Germany. The Gentleman's Magazine was continued by Cave's brother-in-law, David Henry, afterwards by John Nichols and his son. Cave appears to have been the first 2 The first series of the Gentleman's Magazine or Trader's Monthly Intelligencer, extended from January 1731 to December 1735, 5 vols.; the Gentleman's Magazine and Historical Chronicle from January 1736 to December 1807, vols. 6-77; new series, January 1808 to December 1833, vols. 78-103; new series, 1834-1856, 45 vols.; new (third) series, 1856-1865, 19 vols.; new (fourth) series, 18661868, 5 vols. A general index to the first twenty vols. appeared in 1753. S. Ayscough brought out an index to the first fifty-six vols., 1731-1786 (1789), 2 vols., and one by J. Nichols, 1787-1818 (1821), 2 vols. A complete list of the plates and woodcuts (1731-1813) was published in 1814, and another list (1731-1818), in 1821. The Gentleman's Magazine Library, being a classified collection of the chief contents of the Gentleman's Magazine, from 1731 to 1868, is now being edited by Mr G. L. Gomme (1883, &c., vols. 1-17). |