and feet with two primary papillae on the anterior side and one on the posterior side; outer jaw with one minor tooth at the base of the main tooth, inner jaw with no interval between the large tooth and the series of small ones; last fully developed leg of the male with enlarged crural gland opening on a large papilla placed on its ventral surface; coxal organs absent; the nephridial openings of the 4th and 5th pairs of legs are placed in the proximal spinous pad. Genital opening subterminal, behind the last pair of fully developed legs; oviduct without receptacula seminis or receptacula ovorum; the terminal unpaired portion of vas deferens short. Ova of considerable size, but with only a small quantity of yolk. The embryos in the uterus are all nearly of the same age, except for a month or two before birth, when two broods overlap. The following species are aberrant in respect of these characters: Peripatus (Opisthopatus) cinctipes, Purcell (Cape Colony and Natal), presents a few Australasian features; there is a small receptaculum seminis on each oviduct, some of the legs are provided with welldeveloped coxal organs, the feet have one anterior, one posterior and one dorsal papilla, and the successive difference in the ages of the embryos in the uterus, though nothing like that found in the neotropical species, is slightly greater than that found in othe investigated African species. Several pairs of legs in the middle region of the body are provided with enlarged crural glands which open on a large papilla. Male with four accessory glands, opening on each side of and behind the genital aperture. P. tholloni, Bouvier, (Equatorial West Africa [Gaboon]), shows some neotropical features; there are 24 to 25 pairs of legs, the genital opening is between the penultimate legs, and though there are only three spinous pads the nephridial openings of the 4th and 5th legs are proximal to the 3rd pad, coxal organs are present, and the jaws are of the neotropical type; the oviducts have receptacula seminis. The following South African species may be mentioned: ?. capensis (Grube), with 17 (rarely 18) pairs of claw-bearing legs; P. balfouri (Sedgw.) with 18 (rarely 19) pairs; P. moseleyi (Wood-M.), with 20 to 24 pairs. Australasian Species.-With 14, 15 or 16 pairs of claw-bearing ambulatory legs, with three spinous pads on the legs, and nephridial opening of the 4th and 5th legs on the proximal pad; feet with one anterior, one posterior and one dorsal primary papilla; inner jaw without diastema, outer with or without a minor tooth. Last leg of the male with or without a large white papilla on its ventral surface for the opening of a gland, and marked papillae for the crural glands are sometimes present on other legs of the male; well-developed coxal glands absent. Genital opening between the legs of the last pair; oviducts with receptacula seminis, without receptacula ovorum; the terminal portion of the vas deferens long and complicated; the accessory male glands open between the genital aperture and the anus, near the latter. Ova large and heavily charged with yolk, and provided with a stoutish shell. The uterus appears to contain embryos of different ages. Specimens are recorded from West Australia, Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and New Zealand. The Australasian species are in some confusion. The number of claw-bearing legs varies from 14 to 16 pairs, but the number most often found is 15. Whether the number varies in the same species is not clear. There appears to be evidence that some species are occasionally or normally oviparous, and in the supposed oviparous species the oviduct opens at the end of a papilla called from its supposed function an ovipositor, but the oviparity has not yet been certainly proved as a normal occurrence. Among the species described may be mentioned P. leuckarti (Saenger), P. insignis (Dendy), P. oviparus (Dendy), P. viridimaculatus (Dendy), P. novae zealandiae (Hutton), but it is by no means certain that future research will maintain these. Mr J. J. Fletcher, indeed, is of opinion that the Australian forms are all varieties of one species, P. leuckarti. Neotropical Species.-With three to five spinous pads on the legs, nephridial opening of the 4th and 5th legs usually proximal to the 3rd pad, and feet either with two primary papillae on the anterior side and one on the posterior, or with two on the anterior and two on the posterior; outer jaw with small minor tooth or teeth at the base of the main tooth, inner jaw with diastema. A variable number of posterior legs of the males anterior to the genital opening with one or two large papillae carrying the openings of the crural glands; well-developed coxal organs present on most of the legs. The primary papillae usually divided into two portions. Genital opening between the legs of the penultimate pair; oviduct provided with receptacula seminis and ovorum; unpaired part of vas deferens long and complicated; accessory organs of male opening at the sides of the anus. Ova minute, with little food-yolk; embryos in the uterus at very different stages of development. The number of legs usually if not always variable in the same species; the usual number is 28 to 32 pairs, but in some species 40 to 43 pairs are found. The neotropical species appear to fall into two groups: (1) the so-called Andean species, viz. those which inhabit the high plateaus or Pacific slope of the Andes; in these there are 4 (sometimes 5) pedal papillae, and the nephridial openings of the 4th and 5th legs are on the third pad; and (2) the Caribbean species, viz. the remaining neotropical species, in which there are 3 papillae on the foot and the nephridial openings of the 4th and 5th legs are between the 3rd and 4th pads. The Andean species are P. eisenii (Wh.), P. tuberculatus (Bouv.), P. lankesteri (Bouv.), P. quitensis (Schm.), P. corradi (Cam.), P. cameranoi (Bouv.) and P. balzani (Cam.). Of the remaining species, which are the majority, may be mentioned P. edwardsii (Blanch), P. jamaicensis (Gr. and Cock.), P. trinidadensis (Sedgw.), P. torquatus (Ken.), P. im thurmi (Scl.). New Britain Peripatus.-With 22 to 24 pairs of claw-bearing legs, with three spinous pads on the legs, and nephridial openings of legs 4 and 5 (sometimes of 6 also) on the proximal pad; feet with one primary papilla on the anterior, one on the posterior side, and one on the dorsal side (median or submedian); outer jaw with a minor tooth, inner jaw without diastema; crural glands absent; well-developed coxal organs absent. Genital opening subterminal behind the last pair of legs; oviduct with receptaculum seminis, without receptaculum ovorum; unpaired part of vas deferens very short; accessory glands two, opening medianly and dorsally. Ova small, I mm. in diameter, with little yolk, and the embryos provided with large trophic vesicles (Willey). Embryos in the uterus of very different ages, and probably born all the year round. One species only known, P. novae britanniae (Willey). ̧ Sumatran Peripatus.-Peripatus with 24 pairs of ambulatory legs, and four spinous pads on the legs. The primary papillae of the neotropical character with conical bases. Generative opening between the legs of the penultimate pair. Feet with only two papillae. Single species. P. sumatranus (Sedgw.). The existence of this species is doubtful. 44 Peripatus from the Malay Peninsula.-With 23 to 25 pairs of claw-bearing legs, four spinous pads on the legs, and nephridial openings of legs 4 and 5 in the middle of the proximal pad or on its proximal side; feet with two primary papillae, one anterior and one posterior; outer jaw with two, inner jaw with two or three minor teeth at the base of the main tooth, separated by a diastema from the row of small teeth; crural glands present in the male only, in the two pairs of legs preceding the generative opening; coxal glands present. Genital opening between the penultimate legs; oviduct with receptacula seminis and ovorum; unpaired part of vas deferens long; male accessory glands two, opening medianly between the legs of the last pair. Ova large, with much yolk and thick membrane, like those of Australasian species; embryos with slit-like blastopore and of very different ages in the same uterus, probably born all the year round. The species are P. weldoni (Evans), P. horsti (Evans) and P. butleri (Evans). It will thus be seen that the Malay species, while resembling the neotropical species in the generative organs, differ from these in many features of the legs and feet, in the important characters furnished by the size and structure of the ovum, and by their early development. AUTHORITIES.-F. M. Balfour, "The Anatomy and Development of P. capensis,' posthumous memoir, edited by H. N. Moseley and A. Sedgwick, Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. vol. xxiii. (1883); E. L. Bouvier, "Sur l'organisation du Peripatus tholloni, Bouv.," Comptes rendus, cxxvi. 1358-1361 (1898); "Contributions à l'histoire des Péripates Americains," Ann. de la société entomologique de France, lxviii. 385-450 (1899); “Quelques observations sur les onychophores du musée britannique,' Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. xliii. 367 (1900); A. Dendy, On the Oviparous Species of Onychophorea," Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. xlv. 362 (1902); R. Evans, "On Onychophora from the Siamese Malay States," Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. xliv. 473 (1901), and On the Development of Ooperipatus,' ibid. xlv. I (1901); J. J. Fletcher, "On the Specific Identity of the Australian Peripatus, usually supposed to be P. leuckarti, Saenger," Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, x. 172 (1895); E. Gaffron, Beiträge z. Anat. u. Physiol. v. Peripatus," Th. I and 2, Zool. Beiträge (Schneider), i. 33, 145; L. Guilding, Mollusca caribbaeana: an account of a new genus of Mollusca," Zool. Journ. ii. 443, pl. 14 (1826); reprinted in Isis, xxi. 158, pl. ii. (1828); H. N. Moseley, "On the Structure and Development of Peripatus capensis," Phil. Trans. (1874); R. I. Pocock, "Contributions to our Knowledge of the Arthropod Fauna of the West Indies," pt. 2, Malacopoda, &c., Journ. Linn. Soc. xxiv. 518; W. F. Purcell, "On the South African Species of Peripatus," &c., Annals of the South African Museum, i. 331 (1898-1899); and "Anatomy of Opisthopatus_cinctipes," ibid. vol. ii. (1900); W. L. Sclater, "On the Early Stages of the Development of a South American Species of Peripatus," Quart. Journ. of Mic. Sci. xxviii. 343-361 (1888); A. Sedgwick, "A Monograph of the Development of Peripatus capensis (originally published in various papers in the Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci., 1885-1888); Studies from the Morphological Lab. of the University of Cambridge, iv. 1-146 (1889); A Monograph of the Species and Distribution of the Gepus Peripatus, Guilding," Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. xxviii. 431-494 (1888); L. Sheldon, "On the Development of Peripatus novae zealandiae," pts. I and 2, Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. xxviii. and xxix. (1888 and 1889). The memoirs quoted by Sclater, Sedgwick and Sheldon are all reprinted in vol. iv. of the Studies from the Morphological Lab. of the University of Cambridge, vol. iv. (Cambridge University Press, 1889). T. Steel, Observations on Peripatus," Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, p. 94 (1896); A. Willey, "The Anatomy and Development of P. novae britanniae," Zoological Results, pt. 1, pp. 1–52 (Cambridge, 1898). (A. SE.") 44 8.20r0 PERIPTERAL (Gr. Tepi, round, and TTEрov, a wing), in | typified by the tapirs, and the Rhinocerotoidea, which includes architecture, the term applied to a temple or other structure the modern rhinoceroses and their forerunners. where the columns of the front portico are returned along its 1. Titanotheres.-In the Titanotheroidea the dentition may be sides as wings at the distance of one or two intercolumniations expressed by the formula oro, c, Pa, h. There is usually from the walls of the naos or cella. Almost all the Greek temples molars are short-crowned and transitional between the bunodont a short gap between the canine and first premolar; the upper were peripteral, whether Doric, Ionic, or Corinthian (see (tubercular) and selenodont (crescentic) types, with two outer TEMPLE). concave tubercles and two inner conical ones; while the lower PERISSODACTYLA (i.e. odd-toed), the name proposed by molars are crescentic, with three lobes in the last of the series. The skull is elongated, with the orbit not separated from the temSir R. Owen for that division of ungulate mammals in which poral fossa and the nasals, which may or may not carry horns, the toe corresponding to the middle (third) digit of the human reaching at least as far forwards as the union of the remaxillae. hand and foot is symmetrical in itself, and larger than those The post-glenoid, post-tympanic and paroccipital proceses of the on either side (when such are present). The Perissodactyla skull are large, and there is an alisphenoid canal. There are four have been brigaded with the Artiodactyla (q.v.) to form the functional toes in front and three behind; while the calcaneum, unlike that of the other three groups, articulates with the fibula. typical group of the ungulates, under the name of Diplarthra, The group is represented by the families Palaeosyopidae and Titanoor Ungulata Vera, and the features distinguishing the combined theriidae in the Tertiary deposits of North America. Both families group from the less specialized members of the order Ungulata are described under the heading TITANOTHERIIDAE. will be found under the heading of that order. The following are the leading characteristics by means of which the sub-order Perissodactyla is distinguished from the Artiodactyla. The cheek-teeth (premolars and molars) form a B, Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sumatrensis). C, Horse (Equus caballus). 2. Horse Group.-In the Hippoidea there is generally the full often deciduous or even absent in the lower or in both jaws. series of 44 teeth, but the first premolar, which is always small, is The incisors are chisel-shaped, and the canines tend to become isolated, so as in the more specialized forms to occupy a more or less midway position in a longer or shorter gap between the incisors and premolars. In the upper molars the two outer columns or tubercles of the primitive tubercular molar coalesce to form an outer wall, from which proceed two crescentic transverse crests, the connexion between the crests and the wall being slight or imperfect, and the crests themselves sometimes tubercular. Each of the lower molars carries two crescentic ridges. In the earlier forms the cheek-teeth are low-crowned, but in the higher types they become high-crowned. The number of front toes ranges from four to one, and of hind ones from three to one. The postglenoid, post-tympanic and paroccipital processes of the skull are large; the second of these being always distinct. Nasals long, normally without traces of horns. The section is divisible into the families Equidae and Palaeotheriidae, of which the latter is extinct. In the Equidae the premolars are generally or 3. In the earlier short-crowned forms these teeth are unlike the molars, and the first of the series is separated by a gap from the second. In the high-crowned types, as well as in some of the intermediate ones, they become molar-like, and roots are not developed in the whole cheek-series till late. Orbit in higher forms closed by bone;_ and ridges of lower cheek-teeth terminating in large loops. Front toes 4, 3 or I, hind; 3 or 1. (See EQUIDAE and HORSE.) In the Palaeotheriidae the premolars may be or, and are generally molar-like, while the first (when present) is always close to the second; all the cheek-teeth short-crowned and rooted, with or without cement. Outer walls of upper cheek-teeth W-shaped, and transverse crests oblique. Orbit open behind; and ridges of lower cheek-teeth generally terminating in small loops. Feet always 3-toed. (See PALAEOTHERIUM.) U, ulna; R, radius; c, cuneiform; 1, lunar; s, scaphoid; u, unciform; the full 44, or lack the first premolar in the lower or in both jaws. m, magnum; td, trapezoid; tm, trapezium. continuous series, with massive, quadrate, transversely ridged or complex crowns-the posterior premolars usually resembling the molars in structure. Crown of the last lower molar commonly bilobed. Dorso-lumbar vertebrae never fewer than twentytwo, usually twenty-three in the existing species. Nasal bones expanded posteriorly. An alisphenoid canal. Femur with a third trochanter. The middle or third digit on both fore and hind feet larger than any of the others, and symmetrical in itself, the free border of the terminal phalanx being evenly rounded (see fig. 1). This may be the only functional toe, or the second and fourth may be subequally developed on each side. In the tapirs and many extinct forms the fifth toe also remains on the fore-limb, but its presence does not interfere with the symmetrical arrangement of the remainder of the foot on each side of the median line of the third or middle digit. The astragalus has a pulley-like surface above for articulation into the tibia, but its lower surface is flattened and unites to a much greater extent with the navicular than with the cuboid, which bone is of comparatively less importance than in the Artiodactyles. In existing forms the calcaneum does not articulate with the lower end of the fibula. The stomach is simple, the caecum large and capacious, the placenta diffused, and the teats inguinal. The Perissodactyla may be divided into the four following sections, namely the extinct Titanotheroidea, the Hippoidea, represented by the horse tribe and their ancestors, the Tapiroidea, 3. Tapir Group.-In the Tapiroidea the dentition may be either The incisors are chisel-shaped; and (unlike the early Hippoidea) there is no gap between the first premolar, when present, and the second. The upper cheek-teeth are short-crowned and without cement, and show distinct traces of the primitive tubercles; the two with the inner ones by a pair of nearly straight transverse crests; outer columns form a more or less complete external wall, connected and the premolars are originally, simpler than the molars. Lower cheek-teeth with two straight transverse ridges. Nasals long in early, but shorter in later forms, hornless; orbit open behind. Front toes, 4; hind toes, 3. This group is also divided into two families, the Tapiridae and Lophiodontidae, the latter extinct. In the Tapiridae the dentition may be reduced below the typical 44 by the loss of the first lower premolar. Hinder premolars either simple or molar-like. Outer columns of upper molars similar, the hinder ones not flattened; ridges of lower molars oblique or directly transverse, a third ridge to the last molar in the earlier forms. The Lophiodontidae, which date from the Eocene, come very close to Hyracotherium in the horse-line; and it is solely on these early forms into equoids and tapiroids is attempted. In North the authority of American palaeontologists that the division of America the earliest representative of the group is Systemodon of the Lower Eocene, in which all the upper premolars are quite simple; while the molars are of a type which would readily develop into that of the modern tapirs, both outer columns being conical and of equal size. The absence of a gap between the lower canine and first premolar and between the latter and the following tooth is regarded as an essentially tapir-like feature. Lophiodochoerus apparently represents this stage in the European Lower Eocene; Isectolophus, of the American Middle Eocene, represents a distinct advance, the last upper premolar becoming molar-like, while a second species from the Upper Eocene is still more advanced; the third lobe is, however, retained in the last lower molar. In the by Oligocene of both hemispheres appears Protapirus, which ranges well into the Miocene, and is essentially a tapir, having lost the third lobe of the last lower molar, and being in process of acquiring molar-like upper premolars, although none of these teeth have two complete inner columns. Finally, Tapirus itself, in which the last three upper premolars, makes its appearance in the Upper Miocene, and continues till the present day. The characters of the genus may be expressed as follows in a more detailed manner. The dentition is i, cl, pl, m, total 42. Of the upper incisors the first and second are nearly equal, with short, broad crowns, the third is large and conical, considerably larger than the canine, which is separated from it by an interval. Lower incisors diminishing in size from the first to the third; the canine, which is in contact with the third incisor, large and conical, working against (and behind) the canine-like third upper incisor. In both jaws there is a long space between the canines and the commencement of the teeth the cheek-series, which are all in contact. First upper premolar with a triangular crown narrow in front owing to the absence of the anterior inner column. The other upper premolars and molars all formed on the same plan and of nearly the same size, with four roots and quadrate crowns, rather wider transversely than from before backwards, each having four columns, connected a pair of transverse ridges, anterior and posterior. The first lower premolar compressed in front; the others composed of a single pair of transverse crests, with a small anterior and posterior basal ridge. Skull elevated and compressed; with the orbit and temporal fossa widely continuous, there being no true post-orbital process from the frontal bone. Nasal apertures very large, and extending high on the face between the orbits; nasal bones short, elevated, triangular and pointed in front. Vertebrae: cervical, 7; dorsal, 18; lumbar, 5; sacral, 6; caudal about 12. Limbs short and stout. Fore-feet with four toes, having distinct hoofs: the first toe being absent, the third the longest, the second and fourth nearly equal, and the fifth the shortest and scarcely reaching the ground in the ordinary standing position. Hind-feet with the typical perissodactyle arrangement of three toes-the middle one being the largest, the two others nearly equal. Nose and upper lip elongated into a flexible, mobile snout or short proboscis, near the end of which the nostrils are situated. Eyes rather small. Ears of moderate size, ovate, erect. Tail very short. Skin thick and but scantily covered with hair. Tapirs are common to the Malay countries and tropical America; two species from the latter area differ from the rest in having a vertical bony partition to the nasal septum, and are hence subgenerically or generically separated as Tapirella (Elasmognathus) (see TAPIR). Nearly related is the extinct family Lophiodontidae (inclusive of the American Helaletidae), in which both the upper and lower first premolar may be absent, while the upper molars present a more rhinoceros-like form, owing to the lateral compression and consequent lengthening of the outer columns, of which the hinder is bent somewhat inwards and is more or less concave externally, thus forming a more complete outer wall. In America the family is represented by Heptodon, of the Middle Eocene, which differs from the early members of the tapir-stock in having a long gap between the lower canine and first premolar; the dentition is complete, and the upper premolars are simple. The next stage is Helaletes, also of Middle Eocene age, in which the first lower premolar has disappeared, and the last two upper premolars have become molar-like. Finally, in the Oligocene Colodon the last three upper premolars are like the molars, and the first pair of lower incisors is lost. In Europe the group is represented by the long-known and typical genus Lophiodon with three premolars in each jaw, of which the upper are simpler than the molars. The genus is especially characteristic of the Middle and Upper Eocene, and some of the species attained the size of a rhinoceros. 4. Rhinoceros Group.-The last section of the Perissodactyla is that of the Rhinocerotoidea, represented by the modern rhinoceroses and their extinct allies. In this group the incisors and canines are very variable in number and form; the lower canine being separated by only a short gap from the outer incisor (when present), but by a long one from the first premolar, which is in contact with the second. The second and third premolars, which are always present, are large and molar-like; the whole of these teeth being essentially of the lophodont type of Lophiodon, but the last upper molars assume a more or less triangular form, with an oblique outer wall, and there are certain complications in the structure of all these teeth in the more specialized types (fig. 2). The lower cheekteeth have, unlike those of the Tapiroidea, crescentic ridges, which have not the loops at their extremities characteristic of the advanced Hippoidea; the last lower molar has no third lobe. The facial portion of the skull is generally shorter than the cranial; the orbit is freely open behind; and the premaxillae tend to be reduced and fused with the nasals. Front toes, 3 or 4; hind toes, 3. The most primitive group is that of the American Hyracodontidae, represented in the Oligocene by Hyrachyus, Hyracodon and Triplopus. With the exception of the first lower premolar, the dentition is complete; the incisors being normal, but the canine rudimentary, and the last upper molar distinctly triangular. The upper molars have a crista and a crochet (fig. 2). The skull is high, with the facial and cranial portions approximately equal. There are only three front toes, and the limbs are long and adapted for running. In the Amynodontidae, represented by the North American Middle Eocene Amynodon and Metamynodon, the premolars may be either or, making the total number of teeth either 44 or 40. The incisors tend to become lateral, the canines are enlarged, and the last upper molar is sub-quadrangular. The upper molars have a crista but no crochet (fig. 2). As in the last family, the post-glenoid process of the skull is broad; the whole skull being depressed with a shortened facial portion. The fore-foot is fivetoed and spreading; indicating that the members of the family were swamp-dwelling animals. 4 or 2 C 1 or 0 1 or 0 Finally, we have the family Rhinocerotidae, which includes the existing representatives of the group. In this family the dentition has undergone considerable reduction, and may be represented inclusive of all the variations, by the formula i 2 or 0 0 or 1 P4302 m. The first upper incisor, when present, has an antero-posteriorly elongated crown, but the second is small; when fully developed, the lower canine is a large forwardly directed tusk-like tooth with sharp cutting-edges, and biting against the first upper incisor. The third upper molar is triangular, and most of the teeth of the upper cheek-series may have both crochet and crista (fig. 2). The post-glenoid process is small, and the facial and cranial portions of the skull are approximately of equal length. Usually there are three, but occasionally four front toes; and the limb-bones are short. A large number of representatives of the group are known from both the Old and the New World; specialization displaying itself in the later ones in the development of dermal horns over the nasal bones, either in laterally placed pairs as in some of the early forms, or in the median line, either single or double. In North America rhinoceroses became extinct before the close of the Pliocene period; but in the Old World, although their geographical distribution has become greatly restricted, at least five well-marked species survive. The group is unknown in South America. As regards the dentition of the existing species, the cheek-series consists of the four premolars and three molars above and below, all in contact and closely resembling each other, except the first, which is much smaller than the rest and often deciduous; the À B 1 7 others gradually increasing in size up to the penultimate. The upper molars present a characteristic pattern of crown, having a much-developed flat or more or less sinuous outer wall, and two transverse ridges running obliquely inwards and backwards from it, terminating internally in conical eminences or columns, and enclosing a deep valley between. The posterior valley is formed behind the posterior transverse ridge, and is bounded externally by a backward continuation of the outer wall and behind by the cingulum. The anterior valley is formed in the same manner, but is much smaller. The middle valley is often intersected by vertical "crista" and "crochet " plates projecting into it from the anterior surface of the posterior transverse ridge or from the wall, the development of which is a useful guide in discriminating species, especially those known only by teeth and bones. The depressions between the ridges are not filled up with cement. As stated above, the lower molars have the crown formed by a pair of crescents; the last having no third lobe. The head is large, and the skull elongated, and elevated posteriorly into a transverse occipital crest. No post-orbital processes or any separation between orbits and temporal fossae. Nasal bones large and stout, co-ossified, and standing out freely above the premaxillae, from which they are separated by a deep and wide fissure; the latter small, generally not meeting in the middle line in front, often rudimentary. Tympanics small, not forming a bulla. Brain-cavity small for the size of the skull. Vertebrae: cervical, 7; dorsal. 19-20; lumbar, 3; sacral, 4; caudal, about 22. tion of viscera, as in ulcer of the stomach, and of the intestine in typhoid fever, of the bursting of abscesses or cysts into the abdominal cavity, and also of the extensions of inflammatory action from some abdominal or pelvic organ, such as the appendix, the uterus, or bladder. At first localized, it may afterwards become general. The changes effected in the peritoneum are similar to those undergone by other serous membranes when inflamed. Thus, there are congestion; exudation of lymph in greater or less abundance, at first greyish and soft, thereafter yellow, becoming tough and causing the folds of the intestine to adhere together; effusion of fluid, either clear, turbid, bloody or purulent. The tough, plastic lymph connecting adjacent folds of intestine is sometimes drawn out like spun-glass by the movements of the intestines, forming bands and loops through or beneath which a piece of bowel may become fatally snared. The symptoms of acute peritonitis usually begin by a shivering fit or rigor, together with vomiting, and with pain in the abdomen of a peculiarly severe and sickening character, accompanied with extreme tenderness, so that pressure, even of the bed-clothes, causes aggravation of suffering. The patient lies on the back with the knees drawn up so as to relax the abdominal muscles; the breathing becomes rapid and shallow, and is performed by movements of the chest only, the abdominal muscles remaining quiescent-unlike what takes place in healthy respiration. The abdomen becomes swollen by flatulent distension of the intestines, which increases the distress. There is usually constipation. The skin is hot, although there may be perspiration; the pulse is small, hard and wiry; the urine is scanty and high coloured, and is passed with pain. The face is pinched and anxious. These symptoms may pass off in a day or two; if they do not the case is apt to go on to a fatal termination. In such event the abdomen becomes more distended; hiccough, and the vomiting of brown or blood-coloured matter occur; the temperature falls, the face becomes cold and clammy; the pulse is exceedingly rapid and feeble, and death takes place from collapse, the mental faculties remaining clear till the close. When the peritonitis is due to perforation-as may happen in the case of gastric ulcer or of ulcers of typhoid fever, or in the giving way of a loop of strangulated bowel-the above-mentioned symptoms and the fatal collapse may all take place in from twelve to twenty-four hours. The puerperal form of this disease, which comes on within a day or two after childbirth, is often rapidly fatal. The actual cause of death is the absorption of the poisonous inflammatory products which have been poured out into the peritoneal cavity, as well as of the toxic fluids which have remained stagnant in the paralysed bowel. Limbs stout, and of moderate length. Three completely developed | of the bowels, of wounds penetrating the abdomen, of the perforatoes, with distinct broad rounded hoofs on each foot. Teats two, inguinal. Eyes small. Ears of moderate size, oval, erect, prominent, placed near the occiput. Skin very thick, in many species thrown into massive folds. Hairy covering scanty. One or two median horns on the face. When one is present it is situated over the conjoined nasal bones; when two, the hinder one is over the frontals. These horns, which are of a more or less conical form and usually recurved, and often grow to a great length (three or even four feet), are composed of a solid mass of hardened epidermic cells growing from a cluster of long dermal papillae. The cells formed on each papilla constitute a distinct horny fibre, like a thick hair, and the whole is cemented together by an inter mediate mass of cells which grow up from the interspaces between the papillae. It results from this that the horn has the appearance of a mass of agglutinated hairs, which, in the newly growing part at the base, readily fray out on destruction of the softer intermediate substance; but the fibres differ from true hairs in growing from a free papilla of the derm, and not within a follicular involution of the same. Considerable difference of opinion exists with regard to the best classification of the family, some authorities including most of the species in the typical genus Rhinoceros, while others recognize quite a number of sub-families and still more genera. Here the family is divided into two groups Rhinocerotinae and Elasmotheriinae, the latter including only Elasmotherium, and the former all the rest. In the Lower Oligocene of Europe we have Ronzotherium and in that of America Leptaceratherium (Trigonias), which were primitive species with persistent upper canines and three-toed fore-feet. Possibly they belonged to the Amynodontidae, but they may have been related to the Upper Oligocene Diceratherium, in which the nasal bones formed a transverse pair; this genus being common to Europe and North America. Caenopus is an allied American type. Hornless rhinoceroses, with five fronttoes, ranging from the Oligocene to the Lower Pliocene in Europe, represent the genus Aceratherium, which may also occur in America, as it certainly does in India. With the short-skulled, short-footed, three-toed and generally horned rhinoceroses ranging in Europe and America from the Lower Miocene to the Lower Pliocene, typified by the European R. goldfursi and R. brachypus, we may consider the genus Rhinoceros to commence; these species constituting the subgenus Teleoceras. The living R. (Dicerorhinus) sumatrensis of south-eastern Asia indicates another subgenus, represented in the European Miocene by R. sansaniensis and in the Indian Pliocene by R. platyrhinus, in which two horns are combined with the presence of upper incisors and lower canines. Next we have the living African species, representing the subgenus Diceros, in which there are two horns but no front teeth. To this group belongs the extinct European and Asiatic woolly rhinoceros, Rhinoceros (Diceros) antiquitatis, of Pleistocene age, of which the frozen bodies are sometimes found in Siberia, and R. (D.) pachygnathus of the Lower Pliocene of Greece. Finally the Great Indian rhinoceros R. unicornis, the Javan R. sondaicus, and the Lower Pliocene Indian R. sivalensis and R. palaeindicus, represent Rhinoceros proper, in which front teeth are present, but there is only one horn. (See The subfamily Elasmotheriinae is represented only by the huge E. sibircum of the Siberian Pleistocene, in which the premolars were reduced to while front-teeth were probably wanting, and the cheek teeth developed tall crowns, without roots, but with cement in the valleys, and the enamel of the central parts curiously crimped. A hump on the forehead probably indicates the existence of a large frontal horn. RHINOCEROS.) LITERATURE.-J. L. Wortman and C. Earle, Ancestors of the Tapir from the Lower Miocene of Dakota," Bull. Amer. Mus. vol. v. art. 11. (1893); H. F. Osborn, Phylogeny of the Rhinoceroses of Europe," op. cit. vol. xiii. art. 19 (1900); O. Thomas, "Notes on the Type Specimen of Rhinoceros lasiotis, with Remarks on the Generic Position of the Living Species of Rhinoceros," Proc. Zool. Soc. (London, 1901). (R. L.*) PERISTYLE (Gr. Teρí, round, and orûλos, column), in architecture, a range of columns (whether rectangular or circular on plan) in one or two rows, enclosing the sanctuary of a temple; the term is also applied to the same feature when built round the court in which the temple is situated and in Roman houses to the court in the rear, round which the private rooms of the family were arranged, which were entered from the covered colonnade round the court. PERITONITIS, inflammation of the peritoneum-the serous membrane which lines the abdominal and pelvic cavities and gives a covering to their viscera. It may exist in an acute or a chronic form, and may be either localized or diffused. Acute peritonitis may be brought on, like other inflammations, by exposure to wet or cold, or in connexion with injury to, or disease of, some abdominal organ, or with general feebleness of health. It is an occasional result of hernia and of obstruction Perhaps the commonest cause of septic peritonitis is the escape of micro-organisms (bacillus coli) from the ulcerated, mortified or inflamed appendix (see APPENDICITIS). A generation or so ago deaths from this cause were generally placed under the single heading of "peritonitis," but at the present time the primary disease is shown upon the certificate which too often runs thus: appendicitis five days, acute peritonitis two days. Chronic peritonitis may occur as a result of the acute attack, or as a tuberculous disease. In the former case, the gravest symptoms having subsided, some abdominal pain continues, and there is considerable swelling of the abdomen, corresponding to a thickening of the peritoneum, and to the presence of fluid in the peritoneal cavity. This kind of peritonitis may also develop slowly without there having been any preceding acute attack. There is a gradual loss of strength and flesh. The disease is essentially a chronic one; it is not usually fatal. Tuberculous peritonitis occurs either alone or in association with tuberculous disease of a joint or of the lungs. The chief symptoms are abdominal discomfort, or pain, and distension of the bowels. The patient may suffer from either constipation or diarrhoea, or each alternately. Along with these local manifestations there may exist the usual phenomena of tuberculous disease, viz. high fever, with rapid emaciation and loss of strength. But some cases of tuberculous peritonitis present symptoms which are not only obscure, but actually misleading. There may be no abdominal distension, and no pain or tender- | person for a crime punishable with death constituted the offence ness. The patient may lie quietly in bed, flat on his back, with the legs down straight, and he may have no marked elevation of temperature. There may be no vomiting and no constipation or diarrhoea. In some cases, the neighbouring coils of intestine having been glued together, a collection of serous fluid takes its place in the midst of the mass, and, being walled in by the adhesions, forms a rounded tumour, dull on percussion, but not tender or painful. Such cases, especially when occurring in women, are apt to be mistaken for cystic disease of the ovary. As regards the treatment of acute peritonitis, the first thing that the surgeon has to do is to assure himself that the disease is not due to some cause which itself should be dealt with, to a septic disease of appendix or Fallopian tube, for instance, or to a toxic condition of the uterus, the result, perhaps, of a criminal or innocent abortion, or to a perforated ulcer of stomach or intestine. In many obscure cases the safest treatment is likely to be afforded by an exploratory abdominal section. If the medical attendant has made up his mind that the question of exploration is not to be entertained—a decision which should be arrived at only after most deliberate consultation-the best thing will be to apply fomentations to the abdomen, and to administer small and repeated doses of morphia by the skin or grain-repeated every hour or so until the physiological effect is produced. As regards other drugs, it may be a question as to whether calomel or Epsom salts should be given. As regards food, the only thing that can be safely recommended is a little hot water taken in sips. A bedcradle should be placed over the patient in order to keep the weight of the bed-clothes from the abdomen. (E. O.*) PERIZONIUS (or ACCINCTUS), the name of JAKOB VOORBROEK (1651-1715), Dutch classical scholar, who was born at Appingedam in Groningen on the 26th of October 1651. He was the son of Anton Perizonius (1626-1672), the author of a once wellknown treatise, De ratione studii theologici. Having studied at the university of Utrecht, he was appointed in 1682 to the chair of eloquence and history at Franeker through the influence of J. G. Graevius and Nicolas Heinsius. In 1693 he was promoted to the corresponding chair at Leiden, where he died on the 6th of April 1715. The numerous works of Perizonius entitle him to a very high place among the scholars of his age. Special interest attaches to his edition of the Minerva of Francisco Sanchez or Sanctius of Salamanca (1st ed., 1587; ed. C. L. Bauer, 1793-1801), one of the last developments of the study of Latin grammar in its pre-scientific stage, when the phenomena of language were still regarded as for the most part disconnected, conventional or fortuitous. Mention should also be made of his Animadversiones historicae (1685), which may be said to have laid the foundations of historical criticism, and of his treatises on the Roman republic, alluded to by Niebuhr as marking the beginning of that new era of historical study with which his own name is so closely associated. The article on Perizonius in Van der Aa's Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden contains full biographical and bibliographical particulars; see also F. A. Eckstein in Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine Encyklopädie. PERJURY (through the Anglo-Fr. perjurie, modern parjure, Lat. perjurium, a false oath, perjurare, to swear falsely), an assertion upon an oath duly administered in a judicial proceeding before a competent court of the truth of some matter of fact, material to the question depending in that proceeding, which assertion the assertor does not believe to be true when he makes it, or on which he knows himself to be ignorant (Stephen, Digest of the Criminal Law, art. 135). In the early stages of legal history perjury seems to have been regarded rather as a sin than as a crime, and so subject only to supernatural penalties. The injury caused by a false oath was supposed to be done not so much to society as to the Divine Being in whose name the oath was taken (see OATH). In Roman law, even in the time of the empire, the perjurer fell simply under divine reprobation, and was not dealt with as a criminal, except where he had been bribed to withhold true or give false evidence, or where the oath was by the genius of the emperor. In the latter case punishment was no doubt inflicted more for the insult to the emperor than for the perjury. False testimony leading to the conviction of a of homicide rather than of perjury. In England, perjury, as being a sin, was originally a matter of ecclesiastical cognisance. At a later period, when it had become a crime, the jurisdiction of the spiritual courts became gradually confined to such perjury as was committed in ecclesiastical proceedings, and did not extend to perjury committed in a temporal court. The only perjury which was for a long time noticed at common law was the perjury of jurors. Attaint of jurors (see ATTAINT, WRIT OF) who were originally rather in the position of witnesses than of judges of fact, incidentally subjected them to punishment for perjury. Criminal jurisdiction over perjury by persons other than jurors seems to have been first assumed by the Star Chamber, acting under the powers supposed to have been conferred by an act of Henry VII. (1487). After the abolition of the Star Chamber by the Long Parliament in 1641 and the gradual diminution of the authority of the spiritual courts, perjury (whether in the strict sense of the word or the taking of a false oath in non-judicial proceedings) practically fell entirely within the jurisdiction of the ordinary criminal tribunals. At common law only a false oath in judicial proceedings is perjury. But by statute the penalties of perjury have been extended to extra-judicial matters e.g. false declarations made for the purpose of procuring marriage (The Marriage and Registration Act 1856), and false affidavits under the Bills of Sale Act 1878. False affirmation by a person permitted by law to affirm is perjury (The Evidence Further Amendment Act 1869; The Evidence Amendment Act 1870). In order to support an indictment for perjury the prosecution must prove the authority to administer the oath, the occasion of administering it, the taking of the oath, the substance of the oath, the materiality of the matter sworn, the falsity of the matter sworn, and the corrupt intention of the defendant. The indictment must allege that the perjury was wilful and corrupt, and must set out the false statement or statements on which perjury is assigned, subject to the provisions of the Prosecutions for Perjury Act 1749 (which also applies to subornation of perjury). By that act it is sufficient to set out the substance of the offence, without setting forth the bill, answer, &c., or any part of the record and without setting forth the commission or authority of the court before whom the perjury was committed. The matter sworn to must be one of fact and not of mere belief or opinion. It is not homicide, as in Roman law, to procure the death of another by false evidence, but the Criminal Code, ss. 118, 164, proposed to make such an offence a substantive crime of greater gravity than ordinary perjury, and punishable by penal servitude for life. It is a rule of evidence, founded upon obvious reasons, that the testimony of a single witness is insufficient to convict on a charge of perjury. There must be corroboration of his evidence in some material particular. Perjury is a common law misdemeanour, not triable at quarter-sessions. Most persons in a judicial position have the right of directing the prosecution of any witness, if it appears to them that he has been guilty of perjury (The Criminal Procedure Act 1851). The provisions of the Vexatious Indictments Act 1859 extend to perjury and subornation of perjury. By that Act no indictment for either of such offences can be preferred unless the prosecutor or accused is bound by recognisance, or the accused is in custody, or the consent of a judge is obtained, or (in the case of perjury) a prosecution is directed under the act of 1851. Subornation of perjury is procuring a person to commit a perjury which he actually commits in consequence of such procurement. If the person attempted to be suborned do not take the oath, the person inciting him, though not guilty of subornation, is liable to fine and corporal punishment. Perjury and subornation of perjury are punishable at common law with fine and imprisonment. By the combined operation of the Perjury Act 1728 and later statutes, the punishment at present appears to be penal servitude for any term, or imprisonment with or without hard labour for a term not exceeding seven years (see Stephen, Digest, art. 148). The punishment at common law was whipping, imprisonment, fine and pillory. |