صور الصفحة
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النشر الإلكتروني
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villager, very warm and inexpensive, the cost being from 5 to 15
krans (a kran = 10d.). The "kamarband," or girdle, is also charac-
teristic of class. It is made of muslin, shawl or cotton cloth among
the priests, merchants, bazaar people, the secretary class and the
more aged government employés. In it are carried, by literati and
merchants, the pen-case and a roll of paper; its voluminous folds
are used as pockets; by the bazaar people and villagers, porters
and merchants' servants, a small sheath knife is struck in it; while
by farrashes," the carpet-spreader class, a large khanjar," or
curved dagger, with a heavy ivory handle, is carried. The headgea.
is very distinctive. The turban worn by priests is generally white,
consisting of many yards of muslin. When the wearers are saiyid
of the Prophet, a green2 turban is worn, also a kamarband
green muslin, or shawl or cotton cloth. Merchants generally wear
a turban of muslin embroidered in colours, or of a yellow pattern
on straw-coloured muslin, or of calico, or shawl. The distinctive
mark of the courtier, military, and upper servant class is the belt,
generally of black varnished leather with a brass clasp; princes and
courtiers often replace this clasp by a huge round ornament of cut
stones. The "kulah," or hat, is of cloth or sheepskin on a frame
of pasteboard. The fashions in hats change yearly. The Isfahan
merchant and the Armenian at times wear the hat very tall. (The
waist of the Persian is generally small, and he is very proud of
his fine figure and broad shoulders.)

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The hair is generally shaved at the crown, or the entire head is shaved, a "kakul," or long thin lock, being sometimes left, often 2 ft. long, from the middle of the crown. This is to enable the prophet Mahomet to draw up the believer into paradise. The lower orders generally, have the hair over the temporal bone long, and brought in two long locks turning backwards behind the ear, termed zulf"; the beaux and youths are constantly twisting and combing these. The rest of the head is shaven. Long hair, however, is going out of fashion in Persia, and the more civilized affect the cropped hair worn by Europeans, and even have a parting in it. The chin is never shaved, save by beauty men," or kashangs," though often clipped, while the moustache is usually left long. At forty a man generally lets his beard grow its full length, and cherishes it much; part of a Persian's religious exercises is the combing of his beard. Socks, knitted principally at Isfahan, are worn; they are only about 2 in. long in the leg. The rich, however, wear them longer. They are of white cotton in summer. and coloured worsted in winter. Villagers only wear socks on state occasions. Shoes are of many patterns. The " urussi," or Russian shoe is the most common; next, the "kafsh" or slipper of various kinds. The heel is folded down and remains so. The priests wear a peculiar heavy shoe, with an ivory or wooden lining at the heel. Green shoes of shagreen are common at Isfahan. Blacking is unknown to Persians generally. Boots are only used by horsemen, and are then worn much too large for ease. Those worn by couriers often come up the thigh. With boots are worn "shalwars," or baggy riding breeches, very loose, and tied by a string at the ankle; a sort of kilt is worn by couriers. Pocket-handkerchiefs are seldom used, save by the rich or the Teheranis. Most Persians wear a "shab kulah," or night hat, a loose baggy cap of shawl or quilted material, often embroidered by the ladies.

same age, half as much; while a Bombassi is to be got for £14, being chosen merely for physical strength. They are never sold, save on importation, though at times they are given away. . . I have never seen a Persian unkind to his own horse or his slave, and when overtaken by poverty he will first sell his shirt, then his slave. "In commercial morality, a Persian merchant will compare not unfavourably with the European generally. ... To the poor, Persians are unostentatiously generous; most of the rich have regular pensioners, old servants, or poor relations who live on their bounty; and though there are no workhouses, there are in ordinary times no deaths from starvation; and charity, though not organized, is general.... Procrastination is the attribute of all Persians, to-morrow' being ever the answer to any proposition, and the 'to-morrow' means indefinite delay. A great dislike is shown generally to a written contract binding the parties to a fixed date; and, as a rule, on breaking it the Persian always appeals for and expects delay and indefinite days of grace. Persians are clean in their persons, washing themselves and their garments frequently. The Persian always makes the best of his appearance; he is very neat in his dress, and is particular as to the sit of his hat and the cut of his coat. All Persians are fond of animals, and do not treat them badly when their own property. "Cruelty is not a Persian vice; torture and punishments of an unusual and painful nature being part of their judicial system. There are no vindictive punishments, such as a solitary confinement, penal servitude for long terms of years, &c. Seldom, indeed, is a man imprisoned more than twelve months, the rule being that there is a general jail delivery at the New Year.. Royal clemency is frequently shown, often, perhaps, with want of judgment." Costume. The costume of the Persians may be shortly described as fitted to their active habits. The men invariably wear an unstarched shirt of cotton, sewn with white silk, often, particularly in the south of Persia, elaborately embroidered about the neck. It fastens in front by a flap, having two small buttons or knots at the left shoulder, and seldom comes below the hips. It has no collar, and the sleeves are loose. The lower orders often have it dyed blue; but the servant and upper classes always prefer a white shirt. Silk shirts are now seldom seen on men. Among the very religious during the mourning month ("Muharram ") the shirt is at times dyed black. The "zir-jamah," or trousers, are of cloth among the higher classes, particularly those of the military order, who affect a garment of a tightness approaching that worn by Europeans. The ordinary "zir-jamah are of white, blue or red cotton, very loose, and are exactly similar to the pyjamas worn by Europeans in India. They are held up by a thin cord of red or green silk or cotton round the waist, and the labouring classes, when engaged in heavy or dirty work, or when running, generally tuck the end of these garments under the cord, which leaves their legs bare and free to the middle of the thigh. The amplitude of this part of his attire enables the Persian to sit without discomfort on his heels; chairs are only used by the rich, great or Europeanized, Over the shirt and "zir-jamah comes the arkhalik," generally of quilted chintz or print, a closely-fitting garment, collarless, with tight sleeves to the elbow, whence, to the wrist, are a number of little metal buttons, fastened in winter, but not in summer. Above this is the "kamarchin," a tunic of coloured calico, cloth, Kashmir or Kerman shawl, silk, satin or velvet (gold embroidered, or otherwise), according to the time of the year and the purse and position of the wearer. This, like the " arkhalik," is open in front, and shows the shirt. It sometimes has a small standing collar, and is double-breasted. It has a pocket-hole on either side, giving access to the pockets, which are always in the " arkhalik," where also is the breast-pocket in which watch, money, jewels, and seals are kept. The length of the "kamarchin denotes the class of the wearer. The military and official classes and the various servants wear it short, to the knee, while fops and sharpers wear it even shorter. Priests, merchants, villagers, especially about Shiraz, townsmen, shopkeepers, doctors and lawyers wear it very long, often nearly to the heels. Over the kamarchin is worn the "kulijah," or coat. This is, as a rule, cast off in summer, save on formal occasions, and is often borne by a servant, or carried over the shoulder by the owner. It is of cloth, shawl or camel-hair cloth, and is lined with silk or cloth, flannel or fur. It has, likeable value, being of Kashmir shawl, embroidered gauze, &c. A the Turkish frockcoat, a very loose sleeve, with many plaits behind. It has lapels, as with us, and is trimmed with gold lace, shawl or fur, or is worn quite plain. It has a roll collar and false pockets. Besides these garments there are others: the long "jubba," or cloth cloak, worn by "mirzas (secretaries), government employés of high rank, as ministers, farmers of taxes, courtiers, physicians, priests; the abba," or camel-hair cloak of the Arab, worn by travellers, priests and horsemen; the pustin," or Afghan skincloak, used by travellers and the sick or aged; the nimtan," or common sheepskin jacket, with short sleeves, used by shopkeepers and the lower class of servants, grooms, &c., in winter; the " yapanjah," or woollen Kurdish cloak, a kind of felt, having a shaggy side, of immense thickness, worn generally by shepherds, who use it as greatcoat, bed and bedding. There is also the felt coat of the

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1 Zir jamah are loose trousers and also drawers worn under the shalvar, or tight trousers.

XXI. 7

Arms are usually carried only by tribesmen. The natives of the south of Persia and servants carry a “kammah," or dirk. The soldiery, on or off duty, always carry one of these or their sidearms, sometimes both. They hack but never thrust with them. On the road the carrying of weapons is necessary.

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The costume of the women has undergone considerable change in the last century. It is now, when carried to the extreme of fashion, highly indecent and must be very uncomfortable. The garment doing duty as a chemise is called a pirahan "; it is, with the lower orders, of white or blue calico, and comes down to the middle of the thigh, leaving the leg nude. Among the upper classes it is frequently of silk. At Shiraz it is often of fine cotton, and elaborately ornamented with black embroidery. With the rich it is often of gauze, and much embroidered with gold thread, pearls, &c. The head is usually covered with a char-kadd," or large square of embroidered silk or cotton, folded so as to display the corners, and fastened under the chin by a brooch. It is often of consider

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"jika," a jewelled feather-like ornament, is often worn at the side of the head, while the front hair, cut to a level with the mouth, is brought up in love-locks on either cheek. Beneath the charkadd" is generally a small kerchief of dark material, only the edge of which is visible. The ends of the char-kadd cover the shoulders, but the gauze "pirahan" is quite transparent. A profusion of jewellery is worn of the most solid description, none hollow; silver is worn only by the very poor, coral only by negresses. Necklaces and bracelets are much affected, and chains with scent-caskets attached, while the arms are covered with clanking glass bangles called "alangu," some twenty even of these being on one arm. Jewelled "bazubands," containing talismans, are often worn on the upper arm, while among the lower orders and south Persian or Arab women nose-rings are not uncommon, and bangles or anklets of beads. 2 Green turbans are now rarely seen; the colour is generally dark blue, or black.

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The face on important occasions is usually much painted, save | principal governorships were conferred upon the shah's sons, by young ladies in the heyday of beauty. The colour is very freely brothers, uncles and other near relatives, but now many of them applied, the cheeks being as much raddled as a clown's, and the neck smeared with white, while the eyelashes are marked round are held by men who have little if any connexion with the royal with kuhl." This is supposed to be beneficial to the eyes, and family. Also, the governors are now, as a rule, resident in their almost every woman uses it. The eyebrows are widened and provinces instead of being absentees at the capital. There are painted till they appear to meet, while sham moles or stars are also some small districts or dependencies generally held in fief, painted on the chin and cheek; even spangles are stuck at times on the chin and forehead. Tattooing is common among the poor and turyul, by princes or high functionaries who take the revenues in villages, and is seen among the upper classes. The hair, though in lieu of salaries, pensions, allowances, &c., and either themgenerally hidden by the “ char-kadd," is at times exposed and selves govern or appoint others to do so. plaited into innumerable little tails of great length, while a coquettish little skull-cap of embroidery, or shawl, or coloured silk is worn. False hair is common. The Persian ladies' hair is very luxuriant and never cut; it is nearly always dyed red with henna, or with indigo to a blue-black tinge; it is naturally a glossy black. Fair hair is not esteemed. Blue eyes are not uncommon, but brown ones are the rule. A full-moon face is much admired, and a dark complexion termed "namak" (salt) is the highest native idea of beauty. Most Persian women are small, with tiny feet and hands. The figure is always lost after maternity, and no support of any kind is worn.

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Every town has a mayor, or chief magistrate, called beglerbegi, "lord of lords," kalantar, "the greater," and sometimes darogha, overseer," or chief of police; every ward or parish, mahalleh, of a town and every village has a head-man called ked khoda, "house-lord." for the collection of the taxes and the orderly state of their towns, These officers are responsible to the governor parishes and villages. In the important provinces and subprovinces the governors are assisted by a man of experience, to whom the accounts and details of the government are entrusted. A very short jacket, of gay colour, quite open in front, having This person, called viziar, or paishkar, is often nominated by the tight sleeves with many metal buttons, is usually worn in summer, and a lined outer coat in cold weather. In winter a pair of very shah, and his functions in the provincial government are similar short white cotton socks are used, and tiny slippers with a high | to those of the grand vizir in the central government, and com heel; in summer in the house ladies go often barefoot. The rest prise very extended administrative powers, including at times of the costume is composed of the "tumbun shalvar," short skirts of great width, held by a running string-the outer one being the command of the military forces in his province. Among the usually of silk, velvet, or Kashmir shawl, often trimmed with gold nomads a different system of titles prevails, the chiefs who are lace, or, among the poor, of loud-patterned chintz or print. Beneath responsible for the taxes and the orderly conduct of their are innumerable other garments of the same shape, varying in tribes and clans being known as ilkhani, ilbegi (both meaning texture from silk and satin to print. The whole is very short, tribe-lord," but the latter being considered an inferior title among the women of fashion extending only to the thigh. In winter an over-mantle like the "kulijah," or coat of the man, with to the former), khan, rais, amir, mir, shaikh, tushmal, &c. short sleeves, lined and trimmed with furs, is worn. Leg-coverings The governors and chiefs, excepting those possessing herediare now being introduced. In ancient days the Persian ladies tary rights, are frequently changed; appointments are for one always wore them, as may be seen by the pictures in the South Kensington Museum. Then the two embroidered legs, now so year only and are sometimes renewed, but it does not often fashionable as Persian embroideries ("naksh "), occupied a girl occur that an official holds the same government for longer than from childhood to marriage in making; they are all sewing in that period, while it happens rarely that a province is governed elaborate patterns of great beauty, worked on muslin in silk. The by the same person for two or three years. This was not so outdoor costume of the Persian women is quite another thing. formerly, when not infrequently an official, generally a near Enveloped in a huge blue sheet, with a yard of linen as a veil perforated for two inches square with minute holes, the feet thrust relation of the shah, held the same governorship for five, ten into two huge bags of coloured stuff, a wife is perfectly unrecogniz- or even more years. The governorship of the province of able, even by her husband, when out of doors. The dress of all is Azerbaijan was an exception until the end of 1906, being the same; and, save in quality or costliness, the effect is similar. always held by the Valiahd, "heir apparent," or crown prince. As for the children, they are always when infants swaddled; when they can walk they are dressed as little men and women, and with the dress they generally ape the manners. It is a strange custom with the Persian ladies to dress little girls as boys, and little boys as girls, till they reach the age of seven or eight years; this is often done for fun, or on account of some vow-oftener to avert the evil eye.

Towns. The principal cities of Persia with their populations as estimated in 1908 are: Teheran (280,000); Tabriz (200,000); Isfahan (100,000); Meshed (80,000); Kerman, Resht, Shiraz (60,000); Barfurush, Kazvin, Yezd (50,000); Hamadan, Kermānshāh (40,000); Kashan, Khoi, Urmia (35,000); Birjend, Burujird, Bushire, Dizful, Kum, Senendij (Sinna), Zenjan (25,000 to 30,000); Amol, Ardebil, Ardistan, Astarabad, Abekuh, Bam, Bander, Abbasi, Bander Lingah, Damghan, Dilman, Istahbanat, Jahrum, Khunsar, Kumishah, Kuchan, Marand, Maragha, Nishapur, Sari, Sabzevar, Samnan, Shahrud, Shushter (10,000 to 20,000).

Political and Administrative Divisions.-The empire of Persia, officially known as Mamalik i Mahruseh i Iran," the protected kingdoms of Persia," is divided into a number of provinces, which, when large, and containing important sub-provinces and districts, are called mamlikat, "kingdom," when smaller, vilayat and ayalat, and are ruled by governors-general and governors appointed by and directly responsible to the Crown. These provinces are further divided into sub-provinces, vilayats, districts, sub-districts and parishes, buluk, nahiyeh, mahal, and towns, cities, parishes and villages, shehr, kassabeh, mahalleh, dih, which are ruled by lieutenant-governors and other functionaries appointed by and responsible to the governors. All governors are called hakim, or hukmran, but those of large provinces generally have the title of vali, and sometimes firmanfirma. A governor of a small district is a zabit; a deputygovernor is called naib el hukumeh, or naib el ayaleh; an administrative division is a kalamro, or hukumat. Until recently the

The political divisions cf Persia, provinces, sub-provinces, districts, &c., ruled by hakims number over 200 (cf. the statement in Nöldeke's Geschichte des Artachšîr Pâpakân, "after Alexander's death there were in Iran 240 local governors"), but the administrative divisions, hukumat, or kalamro, with governors appointed by the Crown and responsible to it for the revenues, have been under fifty for sixty-five years or more. In 1840 there were twentynine, in 1884 nineteen, in 1890 forty-six, and in 1908 thirty-five, nine administrative divisions, in 1868 twenty-two, in 1875 twenty

as follows:

(a) Provinces:

I. Arabistan and Bakhtiari.
2. Astarabad and Gurgan.
3. Azerbaijan.

4. Fars.

5. Gerrus.

6. Gilan and Talish.

7. Hamadan.

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Roads. With the exception of five short roads, having an aggregate length of less than 900 m., all the roads of the country are mere mule tracks, carriageable in the plains and during the dry season, but totally unfit for continuous wheeled traffic during all seasons, and in the hilly districts often so difficult as to cause much damage to goods and the animals carrying them. There are_a

few miles of roads in the immediate neighbourhood of Teheran leading from the city to royal palaces but not of any commercial

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importance. The five exceptions are: (1) Resht-Kazvin-Teheran, | and Tabriz, the service is weekly. There are reported to be 140 227 m.; (2) Julfa-Tabriz, 80 m.; (3) Teheran-Kum-Sultanabad, post offices. Statistics as to the number of letters, post-cards, 160 m.; (4) Meshed-Kuchan-Askabad, 150 m.; 30 of which are on newspapers, &c., conveyed are kept but not published; and since Russian territory; (5) Isfahan-Ahvaz, 280 m. The first of these 1885, when a liberal-minded director communicated those for the roads consists of two sections: Resht-Kazvin, 135 m., and Kazvin- year 1884-1885 to the present writer, no others, although many Teheran, 92 m. The first section was constructed in 1897-1899 times promised, have been obtained. In the year 1884-1885 there by a Russian company, in virtue of a concession which the Persian were conveyed 1,368,835 letters, 2050 post-cards, 7455 samples, government granted in 1893; and the second section was con- and 173,995 parcels, having a value of £304,720; and the receipts structed in 1878-1879 by the Persian government at a cost of exceeded the expenditure by £466. Since then the traffic has much about £20,000, ceded to the concessionnaire of the first section in increased, and the excess of receipts over expenditure in the year 1896, and repaired and partly reconstructed by the Russian company 1898-1899 was reported to have been £10,000, but was probably more in 1898-1899. Both sections were officially opened to traffic in than that, for the minister of posts farmed the department for August 1899. The capital of the company is 3,200,000 roubles £12,000 per annum. The farm system was abolished in 1901 and (£341,330), of which 1,700,000 is in shares taken by the public, and in the following year the post office was joined to the customs 1,500,000 in debentures taken by the Russian government, which department worked by Belgian officials. Under the most favourable also guarantees 5% on the shares. About two-thirds of the capital conditions letters from London via Russia are delivered at Tabriz has been expended on construction. The company's income is in 9 days, at Teheran in 10, at Isfahan in 14, and at Shiraz in 18 days; derived from tolls levied on vehicles and animals using the road. and via India, at Bushire in 26 days, at Shiraz in 31, at Isfahan in 36, These tolls were at first very high but were reduced by 15% in and at Teheran in 40 days; but during the winter letters between 1904, and by another 10% in 1909. If all the trade between Russia London and Teheran sometimes take a month. In the interior and Teheran were to pass over this road, the tolls would no doubt the mails are conveyed on horseback, and, being packed in badlypay a fair dividend on the capital, but much of it goes by way of the made soft leather bags, are frequently damaged through careless Teheran-Meshed-i-Sar route, which is much shorter and has no tolls. packing and wet. The first Persian postage stamps were issued in The second road, Julfa-Tabriz, 80 m., was constructed by the 1875 and roughly printed in Persia. Since then there have been same Russian company in 1903. The third road, Teheran-Kum- numerous issues, many practically bogus ones for collectors. Sultanabad, 160 m., also consists of two sections: the first, Teheran- Authentic specimens of the early ones are much valued by stamp Kum, 92 m., the other, Kum-Sultanabad, 68 m. The first section collectors. (For information on the postal system of Persia, see was constructed by the Persian government in 1883 at a cost of G. Riederer, Aus Persien, Vienna, 1882; Fr. Schueller, Die about £12,000, purchased by the Imperial Bank of Persia in 1890 persische Post und die Postwerthzeichen von Persien, Vienna, 1893.) for £10,000, and reconstructed at a cost of about £45,000. The Telegraphs.-The first line of telegraphs-from Teheran to second section formed part of the "Ahvaz road concession" which Sultanieh, about 160 m. on the road to Tabriz-was constructed was obtained by the Imperial Bank of Persia in 1890 with the in 1859. In the following year it was continued to Tabriz, and in object of connecting Teheran with Ahvaz on the Karun by a direct 1863 to Julfa on the Russian frontier. With the object of establishcart road via Sultanabad, Burujird, Khorremabad (Luristan), ing a direct telegraphic communication between England and Dizful and Shushter. The concession was ceded to Messrs Lynch, India, by connecting the European and Indian systems by a land of London, "The Persian Road and Transport Company," in 1903. line through Persia from Bagdad-then the most easterly Turkish The fourth cart-road, Meshed-Askabad, 120 m. to the Persian telegraphic station-to Bushire and by a cable from Bushire eastfrontier, was constructed by the Persian government in 1889-1892 wards, a telegraphic convention was concluded in the same year in accordance with art. v. of the Khorasan Boundary Convention between the British and Persian_governments, and a one-wire between Russia and Persia of December 1881. The Persian section line on wooden posts from the Turkish frontier, near Bagdad, cost £13,000. The fifth road, Isfahan-Ahvaz, 280 m., is the old to Bushire via Kermānshāh, Hamadan, Teheran, Isfahan and mule track provided with some bridges, and improved by freeing Shiraz, was constructed at the cost and under the supervision it of boulders and stones, &c., at a total cost of £5500. The con- of the British government. In 1865 a new convention, providing cession for this road was obtained in 1897 by the Bakhtiari chiefs and for a second wire, was concluded, and for some years messages ceded to Messrs Lynch, of London, who advanced the necessary between Europe and India were transmitted either via Constanticapital at 6% interest and later formed the Persian Road and nople, Bagdad, Teheran, Bushire, or via Russia, Tiflis, Tabriz, Transport Company. The road was opened for traffic in the Teheran, Bushire. An alternative line between Bagdad and India autumn of 1900. The revenue is derived from tolls levied on animals was created by the construction of a land line to Fao, at the head passing with loads. The tolls collected in 1907 amounted to £3100. of the Persian Gulf, and the laying of a cable thence to Bushire. Railways.-Persia possesses only 8 m. of railway and 6 m. of The service was very inefficient, and messages between England and tramway, both worked by a Belgian company. The railway consists India took several days and sometimes weeks to reach their destiof a single line, one-metre gauge, from Teheran to Shah-abdul-Azim, nation. In 1869 Messrs Siemens of Berlin, in virtue of concessions south of Teheran, and of two branch lines which connect the main obtained in the year before and later disposed of to the Indo-European line with some limestone quarries in the hills south-east of the city. Telegraph Company, Ltd.-who also took over Reuter's cable from The tramway also is a single line of one-metre gauge, and runs Lowestoft to Emden (274 knots)—constructed a two-wire line on through some of the principal streets of Teheran. The length iron posts through Germany and Russia, and in Persia from Julfa of the main railway line is 5 m., that of the branches 2. The to Teheran. This line was opened on the 31st of January 1870. main line was opened in 1888, the branches were constructed in The British government then handed the Bagdad-Teheran section, 1893, and the tramway started in 1889. The capital now invested which had become unnecessary for international through traffic in this enterprise, and largely subscribed for by Russian capitalists, between Europe and India, over to the Persian government, and amounts to £320,000. There are also ordinary shares to the amount changed its Teheran-Bushire line into one of two wires on iron of £200,000 put down in the company's annual balance-sheets as posts. In 1873, according to a convention signed December 1872, of no value. The general opinion is that if Russian capitalists had a third wire was added to the line, and there was then a three-wire not been interested in the enterprise the company would have line on iron posts (439 m. Indo-European Telegraph Company, liquidated long ago. (On railways in Persia, the many concessions 675 m. Indian government) from Julfa to Bushire. In August granted by the Persian government, and only one having a result, 1901 a convention was concluded between the British and Persian ch. xviii. of Lord Curzon's Persia [i. 613-639], and on the Belgian governments for a three-wire line on iron posts from Kashan (a enterprise, Lorini's La Persia economica [pp. 157-158] may be station on the Teheran-Bushire line) to Baluchistan via Yezd, consulted.) Kerman and Bam (805 m.). The construction of this " Central Posts.-Down to 1874 the postal system was in the hands of an Persia line," as it is known officially, was begun in December 1902 official called chaparchi bashi, who was the head farmer of the post, and completed in March 1907. The section Kashan-Isfahan of or chapars, and letters and small parcels were conveyed by him and the old Teheran-Bushire was then taken up and Isafahan was his agents at high and arbitrary rates and without any responsibility. connected with the Central Persia line by a two-wire line from The establishment of a regular post was one of the results of the Ardistan, 71 m. south-east from Kashan. One of the three wires shah Nasr-ed-din's first visit to Europe (1873). Two officials of between Isfahan and Bushire was also taken up, and there are now the Austrian postal department having been engaged in 1874, an a five-wire line from Teheran to Ardistan (224 m.), a three-wire experiment of a post office upon European lines was made in the line from Ardistan to the Baluchistan frontier (734 m.) and a twofollowing year with a postal delivery in the capital and some of the wire line from Ardistan to Bushire (497 m.). These lines, as neighbouring villages where the European legations have their well as that of the Indo-European Telegraph Company from Julfa summer quarters. In the beginning of 1876 a regular weekly post to Teheran, are worked throughout by an English staff and may was established between Teheran, Tabriz and Julfa (Russo-Persian be classed among the finest and most efficient in the world. The frontier) and Resht. Other lines, connecting all the principal central line is continued through Baluchistan to Karachi, and from cities with the capital, were opened shortly afterwards, and on the Bushire messages go by cable (laid in 1864) to Jask, and thence 1st of September 1877 Persia joined the international postal union either by cable or by land to Karachi, Bombay, &c. The telegraphic with the rates of 24d. per oz. for letters, Id. for post-cards, d. per convention between the British and Persian governments has 2 oz. for newspapers, &c., between Persia and any union country. again been renewed, and is in force until 1925; and the concessions The inland rates were a little less. There are now between Persia to the company were prolonged to the same year by the Russian and foreign countries a bi-weekly service via Russia (Resht-Baku, government in March 1900. In addition to these lines, Persia Tabriz-Tiflis) and a weekly service via India (Bushire-Bombay). possesses 4191 m. of single-wire lines on wooden poles belonging On the inland lines, with the exception of that between Teheran to the Persian government and worked by a Persian staff; the

Teheran-Meshed line (555 m.), however, is looked after by an English inspector and two English clerks at Meshed, and since 1885 the Indian government has allowed a sum not exceeding 20,000 rupees per annum for its maintenance; and the MeshedSeistan line, 523 m., is looked after by twelve Russian inspectors and clerks. The Persian lines are farmed out for 1,800,000 krans (about £36,000) per annum and no statistics are published. There are in all 131 stations. Statistics of the traffic on the Indo-European line are given in the administration reports of the Indo-European telegraph department, published by government, and from them the figures in the following table have been obtained:

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5.39 3.09

Manufactures, &c.-The_handbook on Persian art published by Colonel Murdoch Smith, R.E., in 1876, with reference to the collection purchased and sent home by him for the Victoria and Albert Museum, has an instructive account of the more common manufactures of the country. They are classified under the respective heads of "porcelain and earthenware,' 'tiles," arms and armour,' textile fabrics," "needlework and embroidery," "metal-work," wood carving and mosaic-painting," manuscripts,' enamel," jewelry" and "musical instruments.' Specimens of the greater number are not only to be procured in England, but are almost familiar to the ordinary Londoner. It need scarcely be said that tiles have rather increased in value than deteriorated in the eyes of the connoisseur, that the ornamentation of metal-work, wood carving and inlaying, gem and seal engraving, are exquisite of their kind, and that the carpets manufactured by skilled workmen, when left to themselves and their native patterns, are to a great extent unrivalled. Of the above-mentioned articles, carpets, shawls, woollen and cotton fabrics and silk stuffs are the more important. Carpets may be divided into three categories: (1) Kali, with a pile, and cut like plush; (2) gilim, smooth; (3) nimads, felts. Only the two first are exported. The Kali and its smaller sizes, called Kalicheh (in Europe, rugs), are chiefly made in Ferahan, Sultanabad (Irak), Khorasan, Kurdistan, Karadagh, Yezd, Kerman, and among the nomad tribes of southern Persia. From the two first-mentioned localities, where a British firm has been established for many years, great quantities, valued in some years at £100,000, find their way to European and American markets, while rugs to the value of £30,000 per annum are exported from the Persian Gulf ports. Of the second kind, gilim (used in Europe for curtains, hangings, and chair-covers), considerable quantities are exported from Shushter and Kurdistan. The value of the carpets exported during the year 1906-1907 was close upon £900,000, Turkey taking £613,300, Russia 196,700, United States £40,600, Great Britain £20,700, Egypt £18,500 and India £5400. Shawls are manufactured in Kerman and Meshed, and form an article of export, principally to Turkey. Woollen fabrics are manufactured in many districts, but are not exported in any great quantity. Coarse cotton stuffs, chiefly of the kind called Kerbaz, used in their natural colour, or dyed blue with indigo, are manufactured in all districts but not exported; cottons, called Kalamkar, which are made in Manchester and block-printed in colours at Isfahan and Kumishah, find their way to foreign markets, principally Russian. Of silk fabrics manufactured in Persia, principally in Khorasan, Kashan and Yezd, about £100,000 worth per annum is exported to Turkey, Russia and India. In the environs of Kashan and in Fars, chiefly at Maimand, much rose-water is made, and a considerable quantity of it is exported by way of Bushire to India and Java. Many attempts have been made to start manufactures, supported by foreign capital and conducted by foreigners, but nearly all have resulted in loss. In 1879 the Persian government was induced to spend £30,000 on the erection of a gas factory in Teheran, but work was soon stopped for want of good coal. A few years later a Persian bought the factory and plant for £10,000, and made them over in 1891 to the Compagnie générale pour l'éclairage et le hauffage en Perse, which after bringing out much additional plant, and wasting much capital in trying for some years in vain to make good and cheap gas out of bad and dear coal, closed the factory. In 1891 another Belgian company, Société anonyme des verreries nationales de Perse, opened a glass factory in Teheran, but the difficulty of obtaining the raw material cheaply and in large quantities was too great to make it a paying concern, and the factory

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had to be closed. A third Belgian company, Société anonyme pour la fabrication du sucre en Perse, with a large capital, then came to Persia, and began making beetroot sugar in the winter of 1895. But, like the gas and glass companies, it found the cost of the raw material and the incidental expenses too great, and ceased its operations in 1899. In 1890 a Russian company started a match factory near Teheran with an initial outlay, it is said, of about £20,000, but could not successfully compete with Austrian and Swedish matches and ceased operations very soon. A Persian gentleman erected a cotton-spinning factory at Teheran in 1894 with expensive machinery; it turned out some excellent yarn but could not compete in price with imported yarns.

Agricultural Products.-Wheat, barley and rice are grown in all districts, the two former up to considerable altitudes (8000 ft.), the last wherever the water supply is abundant, and in inner Persia generally along rivers; and all three are largely exported. The most important rice-growing districts which produce more than they require for local consumption and supply other districts, or export great quantities, are Astarabad, Mazandaran, Gilan, Veramin, (near Teheran). Lenjan (near Isfahan), and some localities in Fars and Azerbaijan. Peas, beans, lentils, gram, maize, millet, are also universally cultivated, and exported from the Persian Gulf ports to India and the Arabian coast. The export of rice amounted to 52,200 tons in 1906-1907, and was valued at £472,550. The Persian fruit is excellent and abundant, and large quantities, principally dried and called khushkbar (dry fruit), as quinces, peaches, apricots, plums (of several kinds), raisins, figs, almonds, pistachios, walnuts and dates (the last only from the south), as well as oranges (only from the Caspian provinces), are exported. The fruit exported during 1906-1907 had a value of £1,019,000. Nothing is being done to improve the vine, and the Persian wines, until recently of world-wide reputation, are yearly getting thinner and poorer. The phylloxera has done much damage. The naturalist S. G. Gmelin, who explored the southern shores of the Caspian in 1771, observed that the wines of Gilan were made from the wild grape. Cotton is largely grown, principally in the central districts and Khorasan, and some qualities are excellent and command high prices in the European markets; 18,400 tons of raw cotton, valued at £838,787, were exported to Russia in 1906-1907. Good hemp grows wild in Mazandaran. Tobacco of two kinds, one the tumbaku (Nicotiana persica, Lindl.), for water pipes, the other the tutun (Nicotiana rustica, L.), for ordinary pipes and cigarettes, is much cultivated. The tumbaku for export is chiefly produced in the central districts round about Isfahan and near Kashan, while the tumbaku of Shiraz, Fessa, and Darab in Fars, considered the best in Persia, is not much appreciated abroad. Tutun is cultivated in Azerbaijan, near Urmia and other places near the Turkish frontier, in Kurdistan, and, since 1875, in the district of Resht,in Gilan. About 1885 the quantity of tobacco exported amounted to between 4000 and 5000 tons. In 1906-1907 only 1820 tons, valued at £42,000, were exported. The cultivation of poppy for opium greatly increased after 1880, and it was estimated in 1900 that the annual produce of opium amounted to over 1000 tons, of which about two-fifths was consumed and smoked in the country. The principal opium-producing districts are those of Shiraz, Isfahan, Yezd, Kerman, Khorasan, Burujird and Kermānshāh. While the quantity consumed in the country is now probably the same, the quantity exported is much less: 239 tons, valued at £237,270 in 1906-1907. The value of the silk produced in Persia in the 'sixties was £1,000,000 per annum, and decreased in consequence of silk-worm disease to £30,000, in 1890. The quantity produced has since then steadily increased and its yearly value is estimated at half a million. Cocoons and raw silk valued at £316,140 were exported in 1906-1907. Of oil-yielding plants the castor-oil plant, sesame, linseed and olive are cultivated, the last only in a small district south of and near Resht. Very little oil is exported. The potato, not yet a staple article of food, tomatoes, celery, cauliflower, artichokes and other vegetables are now much more grown than formerly, chiefly in consequence of the great influx of Europeans, who are the principal consumers.

Among the valuable vegetable products forming articles of export are various gums and dyes, the most important being gum tragacanth, which exudes from the astragalus plant in the hilly region from Kurdistan in the north-west to Kerman in the south-east. Other gums are gum-ammoniac, asafetida, galbanum, sagapanum, sarcocolla and opoponax. In 1906-1907, 3310 tons of various gums of a value of £300,000 were exported. Of dye-stuffs there are produced henna (Lawsonia inermis) principally grown at Khabis near Kerman, woad and madder; a small quantity of indigo is grown near Dizfu! and Shushter. The export of dyes in 1906-1907 was 985 tons, valued at £32,326.

Horses, mules and donkeys, formerly exported in great numbers, are at present not very abundant, and their prices have risen much since 1880. Some nomad tribes who owned many brood mares, and yearly sold hundreds of horses, now hardly possess sufficient animals for their own requirements. The scarcity of animals, as well as the dearness of fodder, is one of the causes of the dearness of transport, and freights have risen on the most frequented roads from 3d. per ton-mile in 1880 to 1od., and even 13d., per ton-mile. The prices of staple articles of food rose steadily from 1880 and

reached a maximum in 1900 and 1901, as will be seen from the millions. There are also some very rich coal seams in eastern following table:

Wheat, per kharvar.

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(649 lb)

Rice

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9.60 9.60

Meat,mutton (per mann)

Cheese

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112

I

224

115

3 7.20 3

3.84 5.28

4.80

7.68 2.40

Eggs, per 100. Forests and Timber.-Timber from the forests of Mazandaran and Gilan has been a valuable article of export for many years, and since about 1870 large quantities of boxwood have also been exported thence; in some years the value of the timber and boxwood exported has exceeded £50,000. This value represented about 200,000 box trees and quite as many others. Much timber is also used for charcoal-burning, and occasionally large parts of forest are burned by the people in order to obtain clearings for the cultivation of rice. The destruction of the forests by timbercutters and charcoal-burners has been allowed to go on unchecked, no plantations have been laid out, and nothing has been done for forest conservation. Indiscriminate cutting has occasionally been confined within certain bounds, but such restrictions were generally either of short duration or made for the convenience and profit of local governors. The oak forests of Kurdistan, Luristan and the Bakhtiari district are also being rapidly thinned. A small step in the right direction was made in 1900 by engaging the services of an official of the Prussian forest department, but unfortunately, beyond sending him to inspect the Mazandaran forests belonging to the Crown, and employing him to lay out a small plantation in the Jajrud valley, east of Teheran, nothing was done. The monopoly for cutting and exporting the timber of the Mazandaran forests is leased to European firms, principally for box and oak. Boxwood has become scarce. There are many kinds of good timber-yielding trees, the best known being alder (Alnus glutinosa, Wild., A. barbata, A. cordifolia, Ten.), ash (Fraxinus excelsior, L.), beech (Fagus sylvatica), elm (Ulmus campestris, U. effusa, U. pedunculata), wych-elm (Ulmus montana), hornbeam (Carpinus betulus, L.), juniper (Juniperus excelsa, J. communis, J. sabina), maple (Acer insigne, Boiss., A. campestre, A. pseudo-platanus, L.), oak (Quercus ballota, Q. castaneaefolia, Q. sessiliflora, Q. pedunculata), walnut, nettle tree (Celtis australis, L.), Siberian elm (Zelkova crenata, Spach.), and various kinds of poplar. Pipe-sticks, from the wild cherry tree, are exported to Turkey.

Fisheries.-Fish is a staple food along the shores of the Persian Gulf, but the Crown derives no revenue from fisheries there. The fisheries of the Caspian littoral are leased to a Russian firm (since 1868), and most of the fish goes to Russia (31,120 tons, value £556,125, in 1906-1907). The fish principally caught are sturgeon, giving caviare, sheat fish or silure, salmon, carp, bream and perch. Minerals and Mining.-Persia possesses considerable mineral riches, but the absence of cheap and easy means of transport, and the scarcity of fuel and water which prevails almost everywhere, make any exploitation on a remunerative scale impossible, and the attempts which have been made to work mines with European capital and under European superintendence have been financially unsuccessful. Deposits of rich ores of copper, lead, iron, manganese, zinc, nickel, cobalt, &c., abound. A few mines are worked by natives in a primitive, systemless manner, and without any great outlay of capital. There are turquoise mines near Nishapur (for description of mines, manner of working, &c., see A. HoutumSchindler, Report on the Turquoise Mines in Khorasan, F. O. Reports, 1884, and " Die Gegend zwischen Sabzwar und Meschhed," Jahrbuch k. k. geol. R. A. Wien, vol. xxxvi.; also E. Tielze, Verhandl. k. k. geol. R. A., 1884, p. 93); several copper mines in Khorasan, Samnan, Azerbaijan and Kerman; some of lead, two considerably argentiferous, in Khorasan, Tudarvar (near Samnan), Anguran, Afshar (both west of Zenjan), and Kerman; two of iron at Mesula in Gilan and Nur in Mazandaran; two of orpiment in Afshar and near Urmia; one of cobalt at Kamsar (near Kashan); one of alum in Tarom (near Kazvin); and a number of coal in the Lar district, north-east of Teheran, and at Hiv and Abyek, north-west of Teheran. There are also many quarries of rock-salt, gypsum, lime and some of marble, alabaster, soapstone, &c. The annual revenue of the government from the leases, rents and royalties of mines does not amount to more than £15,000, and about £6000 of this amount is derived from the turquoise mines near Nishapur. As the rents and royalties, excepting those on the turquoise mines, amount to about one-fifth of the net proceeds, it may be estimated that the value of the annual output does not exceed £50,000, while the intrinsic value of the ores, particularly those of lead, iron, cobalt and nickel, which have not yet been touched can be estimated at

Persia, far away on the fringe of the desert, and under existing conditions quite valueless. The richest deposits of nickel, cobalt and antimony ores are also situated in localities where there is little water and the nearest useful fuel some hundred miles away. Auriferous alluvial strata have been discovered in various localities, but everywhere the scarcity of water has been a bar to their being exploited with profit. A rich naphtha-bearing zone stretches from the Luristan hills near Kermanshah down to the Persian Gulf. Competent engineers and specialists have declared that borings in the Bakhtiari hills, west of Shushter, would give excellent results, but the difficult hilly country and the total absence of roads, as well as the antipathy of the inhabitants of the district, would make the transport and establishment of the necessary plant a most difficult matter. A British syndicate has been boring at several places in the zone since 1903.

Commerce. The principal centres of commerce are Tabriz, Teheran, Resht, Meshed and Yezd; the principal ports Bander Abbasi, Lingah, Bushire and Muhamrah on the Persian Gulf, and Astara, Enzeli, Meshed i Sar and Bander i Gez on the Caspian. Until 1899 all the customs were farmed out (1898-1899 for £300,000), but in March of that year the farm system was abolished in the two provinces of Azerbaijan and Kermanshāḥ, and, the experiment there proving successful, in all other provinces in the following year. At the same time a uniform duty of 5% ad valorem was established. In October 1901 a treaty fixing a tariff and reserving "the most favoured nation" treatment for the countries already enjoying it was concluded between Persia and Russia. It was ratified in December 1902 and came into force on the 14th of February 1903. The commercial treaty with Great Britain, concluded in 1857, provided for the treatment, but nevertheless a new treaty under which the duties on Russian levied on British imports would be the same as imports was made with Great Britain a few days before the new tariff came into force and was ratified in May.

most favoured nation

For the value of imports and exports previous to 1901 the only statistics available were the figures given in consular reports, which were not always correct. In 1897 it was estimated that the value of the imports from and exports to Great Britain, including India, amounted to £3,250,000. About a quarter of this trade passed over the western frontier of Persia, while three-quarters passed through the Persian Gulf ports. The value of the trade between Russia and Persia was then about £3,500,000. Since 1901 detailed statistics have been published by the customs department, and according to them the values of the imports and exports in thousands of pounds sterling for the six years 1901-1907 were as follows:Imports. Exports.

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While the value of the trade between Great Britain and Persia in 1906-1907 was almost the same as in 1897, that of the trade with Russia had increased from 3 millions to 8 or 137 %. The average yearly value of the trade between Great Britain and Persia during the six years was £2.952,185 (imports £2,435,016, exports £517,169); between Russia and Persia £6,475,866 (imports £3,350,072, exports £3,125,794). The average values of the trade with other countries were: France £666,000, Austria £246,000, Germany £124,000, Italy £79,000, United States of America £52,000, Netherlands £39,000. The principal imports into Persia in approximate order of value are cottons, sugar, tea, woollens, cotton yarn, petroleum, stuffs of wool and cotton mixed, wool, hardware, ironmongery, matches, iron and steel, dyes, rice, spices and glassware. The principal exports are fruits (dried and fresh), carpets, cotton, fish, rice, gums, wool, opium, silk cocoons, skins, live animals, silks, cottons, wheat, barley, drugs and tobacco.

Shipping and Navigation.-Shipping under the Persian flag is restricted to vessels belonging to the Persian Gulf ports. Some of the larger craft, which are called baglah, and vary from 50 to 300 tons, carry merchandise to and from Bombay, the Malabar

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