direction via Perth. At Crieff junction it sends off a branch to Crieff and at Perth branches to Dundee and Lochearnhead. The Stirling to Oban line of the same company crosses the shire from Dunblane to Tyndrum. The Highland railway runs northwards from Perth, and has a branch at Ballinluig to Aberfeldy. Branches of the North British railway reach Perth from Mawcarse in Kinrossshire and Ladybank in Fifeshire; part of the branch from Buchlyvie on the Forth and Clyde line runs to Aberfoyle, and the West Highland railway skirts the extreme west of the shire. At several points coaches supplement the rail. In the tourist season steamers ply on Loch Tay and Loch Katrine, and there is a service on the Tay between Perth and Dundee,

66

Population and Administration. In 1891 the population amounted to 122,185 and in 1901 to 123,283, or 49 persons to the sq. m. The rate of increase was the smallest of any Scottish county for the decade. In 1901 there were 78 persons speaking Gaelic only and 11,446 Gaelic and English. The chief towns are Perth (pop. 32,873), Crieff (5208), Blairgowrie (3378), Dunblane (2516), Auchterarder (2276), Coupar-Angus (2064), Rattray (2019). Among lesser centres may be mentioned Aberfeldy (1508), a favourite resort on the Tay, well known for the falls of Moness, mentioned in Robert Burns's song The Birks of Aberfeldy "; Abernethy (623), the seat of an early bishopric, retaining one of the three ancient round towers in Scotland; Alyth (1965); Callander (1458); Comrie (1118), a holiday resort on the Earn; Pitlochry (1541); and Stanley (1035), on the Tay. Of old the county was divided into hereditary jurisdictions, which were abolished in 1748, and in 1795 the county was divided into districts for administrative purposes, a system which obtained until 1889, when county and district councils were established. The sheriffdom is divided into an eastern and western district, the seat of the one being Perth and the other Dunblane. For parliamentary purposes the county is also divided into an eastern and a western division, and the city of Perth returns a member. The shire is under school-board jurisdiction, and there are secondary schools at Perth and Crieff, and Trinity College in Glen Almond is a well-known public school on the English model..

History. In 83 Agricola explored the lands beyond the Forth and in the following year penetrated to the Grampians, defeating the Caledonians under Galgacus with great slaughter. The site of this battle is conjectured by William Forbes Skene to have been near Meikleour, south of Blairgowrie, but other writers have referred it to Dalginross, near Comrie; to Ardoch (where there are the most perfect remains of a Roman encampment in the British Isles); and even as far north as Raedykes, near Stonehaven in Kincardineshire. The Romans did not pursue their victory, and the Picts were left undisturbed for a considerable period. At this time, according to Ptolemy, the territory now known as Perthshire was occupied by three tribes-the Damnonii, the Venicones and the Vacomagi. The Damnonii held Menteith, Strathearn and Fothrif (the western part of modern Fife and Kinross), with Alauna (Allan), just above Stirling, Lindum (Ardoch) and Victoria (believed by some authorities to be Lochore in Fifeshire, and by others to be Perth city), as their chief towns. The Venicones inhabited north-western Fife and the adjoining tract of Perthshire, with Orrea (probably Abernethy) as their chief town and a station at Ardargie. The Vacomagi dwelt in the Highland region, with stations at Inchtuthil (a peninsula in the Tay above Kinclaven) and Banatia (Buchanty on the Almond). The growing lawlessness of the southern Picts and their frequent raids in the more settled country in the south at last compelled the attention of the emperor Severus. He arrived in Britain in 208, but though he led a strong army to the shores of the Moray Firth, he was unable effectually to subdue the tribesmen. The road he constructed ran from Stirling to Ardoch (where there are notable remains) and thence by Strageath, near Muthill, where it branched north-westwards to Dalginross and Buchanty, and north-eastwards to Perth and so to the Grampians. When the Romans finally withdrew from Britain, the Picts established their capital first at Abernethy and then at Forteviot. Abernethy was the centre of the Celtic church after the conversion of the natives by Ninian, Palladius and other missionaries in the

The

5th and 6th centuries. On the burning of Forteviot by the Norsemen in the 8th century, the seat of Pictish government was removed to Scone. In the latter half of the 9th century Dunkeld to which Kenneth Macalpine had brought some of the relics of Columba from Iona-became the scene of monastic activity, the abbot succeeding to the position of the abbot of Iona, and exercising great influence for nearly a hundred years. Danes periodically harried the land, but a crushing defeat at Luncarty in 961 put an end to their inroads in this quarter. In 1054 Macbeth was defeated at Dunsinane by Siward, earl of Northumberland, who had invaded Scotland in the interest of his kinsman, Duncan's son, who, on the death of the usurper three years later, ascended the throne as Malcolm III., called Canmore. With Malcolm's accession the Celtic rule of the monarchy of Scone came to an end. Nevertheless, the Scottish sovereigns (excepting James II., James III. and Mary) continued to be crowned at Scone, which also retained the position of capital until the beginning of the 12th century, when it was displaced by Perth. From the time of Alexander I. (d. 1124), therefore, the history of the shire is merged in that of the county town, with the exception of such isolated incidents as the removal of the Coronation Stone from Scone to Westminster in 1296, the defeat of Robert Bruce at Methven in 1306, the battle of Dupplin in 1332, the victory of Dundee at Killiecrankie in 1689 and the indecisive contest at Sheriffmuir in 1715. Among archaeological remains may be mentioned the hill-fort on Dunsinane; the ship-barrow of the vikings at Rattray, weems (or earth-houses) in the parishes of Monzie, Alyth and Bendochy; the witch-stone near Cairnbeddie, one of the numerous spots where Macbeth is alleged to have met the witches, but probably a sepulchral memorial of some forgotten battle; standing stones near Pitlochry, and an extraordinary assemblage of sculptured stones at Meigle.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.-Robertson, Comitatus de Atholiae (Edinburgh, 1860); P. R. Drummond, Perthshire in Bygone Days (London, 1879); Marshall, Historic Scenes of Perthshire (Perth, 1880); Beveridge, Perthshire-on-Forth (2 vols., London, 1885); R. B. CunninghameGrahame, Notes on the District of Menteith (London, 1895); Hutchison, The Lake of Menteith (Stirling, 1899).

PERTINAX, PUBLIUS HELVIUS (A.D. 126-193), Roman emperor, the son of a charcoal-burner, was born at Alba Pompeia in Liguria. From being a teacher of grammar he rose through many important offices, both civil and military, to the consulate, which he held twice. Chosen, at an advanced age and against his will, on the 1st of January 193, to succeed Commodus, he was himself assassinated in a mutiny of the soldiers, on the 28th of March 193.

PERTZ, GEORG HEINRICH (1795-1876), German historian, was born at Hanover on the 28th of March 1795. From 1813 to 1818 he studied at Göttingen, chiefly under A. H. L. Heeren. His graduation thesis, published in 1819, on the history of the Merovingian mayors of the palace, attracted the attention of Baron Stein, by whom he was engaged in 1820 to edit the Carolingian chroniclers for the newly-founded Historical Society of Germany. In search of materials for this purpose, Pertz made a prolonged tour through Germany and Italy, and on his return in 1823 he received at the instance of Stein the principal charge of the publication of Monumenta germaniae historica, texts of all the more important historical writers on German affairs down to the year 1500, as well as of laws, imperial and regal archives, and other valuable documents, such as letters, falling within this period. Pertz made frequent journeys of exploration to the leading libraries and public record offices of Europe, publishing notes on the results of his explorations in the Archiv. der Gesellsch. f. deutsche Geschichtskunde (1824-1872). In 1823 he had been made secretary of the archives, and in 1827 principal keeper of the royal library at Hanover; from 1832 to 1837 he edited the Hannoverische Zeitung, and more than once sat as a representative in the Hanoverian second chamber. In 1842 he was called as chief librarian to Berlin, where he shortly afterwards was made a privy councillor and a member of the Academy of Sciences. He resigned all his appointments in

The Monumenta began to appear in 1826, and at the date of his resignation 24 volumes folio (Scriptores, Leges, Diplomata) had appeared. This work for the first time made possible the existence of the modern school of scientific historians of medieval Germany. In connexion with the Monumenta Pertz also began the publication of a selection of sources in octavo form, the Scriptores rerum germanicarum in usum scholarum; among his other literary labours may be mentioned an edition of the Gesammelte Werke of Leibnitz, and a life of Stein (Leben des Ministers Freiherrn vom Stein (6 vols., 1849-1855); also, in an abridged form, Aus Steins Leben (2 vols., 1856).

being 1,137,000 sq. kilometers, or 439,014 sq. m.

With the exception of parts of the Ecuador, Brazil and Bolivia frontiers, all the boundary lines have been disputed and referred to arbitration-those with Colombia and Ecuador to the king of Spain, and that with Bolivia to the president of Argentina, on which a decision was rendered on the 9th of July 1909. There have been misunderstandings with Ecuador in regard to some small areas in the Chira valley, but it may be assumed that the line is fixed between Santa Rosa (3° 21' S.) on the Gulf of Guayaquil, and the Chinchipe river, a tributary of the Marañon. At the junction of the Cauches with that river, that Ecuadorean line descends the Chinchipe to the Marañon, and the Peruvian ascends to a point where it is intersected by a line following the eastern Cordillera northward to the head-waters of the Caquetá, or

Japurá, which forms the northern boundary down to the Brazilian frontier. This claim covers all eastern Ecuador and a large part of south-eastern Colombia. In 1903 there were encounters between small bodies of Peruvian and Ecuadorean troops on the disputed frontier. After arbitration by the king of Spain had been agreed upon, the question was considered by two Spanish commissions, and modifications favouring Peru were recommended. These became known prematurely, and in May 1910 was threatened between Peru and Ecuador in spite of an offer of mediation by the United States, Brazil and Argentina under the Hague Convention.

war

From the Japurá southward to the Amazon, in 4° 13′ 21′′ S., 69° 35′ W., and thence up the Javary, or Yavari, to its source in 7° 8' 4" S., 73° 46' 30" W., determined by a mixed commission, the line has been definitely settled. From near the source of the Javary, or lat. 7° 1' 17" S., a line running eastward to the Madeira in lat. 6° 52' 15" S., which is half the distance between the mouth of the Mamoré and the mouth of the Madeira, divides the Spanish and Portuguese possessions in this part of South America, according to the provisions of the treaty of San Ildefonso of 1777. This line has been twice modified by treaties between Bolivia and Brazil, but without the, consent of Peru, which claimed all the territory eastward to the Madeira between the above-mentioned line and the Beni-Madidi rivers, the line of demarcation following the Pablo-bamba, a small tributary of the Madidi, to its source, and thence in a straight line to the village of Conima, on Lake Titicaca. The dispute with Brazil relates to the territory acquired by that republic from Bolivia in 1867 and 1903, and was to be settled, according to an agreement

PERU (apparently from Biru, a small river on the west coast of Colombia, where Pizarro landed), a republic of the Pacific coast of South America, extending in a general N.N.W.-S.S.E. direction from lat. 3° 21' S. to about 18° S., with a sea-coast of 1240 m. and a width of 300 to 400 m., exclusive of territories in dispute. Its area in 1906, including Tacna and Arica, and other disputed territories occupied by neighbouring states, was officially estimated at 1,752,422 sq. kilometers, or 676,638 sq. m.; exclusive of these territories, the area of Peru is variously

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of 1908, by direct negotiation if possible, or, failing this, by arbitration. The decision of the president of Argentina of the 9th of July 1909, in regard to the remainder of this extensive territory, was a compromise, and divided it into two nearly equal parts. The line adopted starts from Lake Suches, the source of a small river of that name flowing into the north of Lake Titicaca, crosses the Cordillera by the Palomani to the Tambopata river, follows that stream to the mouth of the Lanza, thence crosses to the source of the Heath river, which forms the dividing line down to its junction with the Madre de Dios, descends that river to the mouth of the Torosmonas, thence in a straight line north-westerly to the intersection of the Tahuamanu river by the 69th meridian, and thence north on that meridian to the Brazilian frontier. This decision at first gave offence to the Bolivians, but friendly overtures from Peru led to its acceptance by both parties with the understanding that modifications would be made in locating the line wherever actual settlements had been made by either party on territory awarded to the other. With Chile the de jure line is that of the Camarones ravine which separated the old department of Moquegua (including the provinces of Tacna and Arica) from that of Tarapacá The de facto line is that of the Sama river (usually dry), which opens on the coast a little south of Sama point, near 18° S., Chile retaining possession of the two above-mentioned provinces in violation of the treaty of Ancon, which she forced upon her defeated antagonist.

Physical Geography.-Peru is divided longitudinally into three well-defined regions, the coast, the sierra and the montaña. The coast, extending from the base of the Western or Maritime Cordillera to the Pacific Ocean, consists of a sandy desert crossed at intervals by rivers flowing through narrow, fertile valleys. The sierra is the region of the Andes, and is about 250 m. in width. It contains stupendous chains of mountains, elevated plains and table-lands, warm and fertile valleys and ravines. The montaña is the region of tropical forests within the valley of the Amazon, and skirts the eastern slopes of the Andes.

The coast has been upraised from the ocean at no very distant geological epoch, and is nearly as destitute of vegetation as the African Sahara. It is watered, however, by fifty The Coast. streams which cross the desert at intervals. Half of these have their origin in the summits of the Andes, and run with a permanent supply of water into the ocean. The others, rising in the outer range, which does not reach the snow-line and receives less moisture, carry a volume of water to the sea during the rainy season, but for the rest of the year are nearly dry. The absence of rain here is ascribed to the action of the lofty uplands of the Andes on the trade-wind, and to the influence of the cold Humboldt current sweeping northward along the west coast of the continent. The south-east trade-wind blows obliquely across the Atlantic Ocean until it reaches Brazil. By this time it is heavily laden with vapour, which it continues to bear along across the continent, depositing it and supplying the sources of the Amazon and La Plata. When the wind rises above the snow-capped Andes, the last particle of moisture is wrung from it that a very low temperature can extract. Passing the summit of that range, it rushes down as a cool and dry wind on the Pacific slopes beyond. Meeting with no evaporating surface, and with no temperature colder than that to which it is subjected on the mountain-tops, this wind reaches the ocean before it becomes charged with fresh moisture. The constantly prevailing wind on the Peruvian coast is from the south, which is a cold wind from the Humboldt current. As it moves north it becomes gradually warmed and takes up moisture instead of depositing it as rain. From November to April there are usually constant dryness, a clear sky, and considerable, though by no means oppressive, heat. From June to September the sky is obscured for weeks together by fog, which is often accompanied by drizzling rain called garua. At the time when it is hottest and driest on the coast it is raining heavily in the Andes, and the rivers are full. When the rivers are at their lowest, the garua prevails on the coast. The climate of various parts of the coast, however, is modified by local circumstances.

The Western Cordillera, overhanging the Peruvian coast, contains a long line of volcanic mountains, most of them inactive, but their presence is probably connected with the frequent and severe earthquakes, especially in the southern section of the coast. Since 1570 seventy violently destructive earthquakes have been recorded on the west coast of South America, but the register is incomplete in its earlier part. The most terrible was that of 1746, which destroyed Callao, on the 28th of October, and there were 220 shocks in the following twenty-four hours. The town was overwhelmed by a vast wave, which rose 80 ft.; and the shocks continued until the following February. On the 13th of August 1868 an earthquake

Coast Flora.

nearly destroyed Arequipa, and great waves rolled in upon the ports of Arica and Iquique. On the 9th of May 1877 nearly all the southern ports were overwhelmed. The deserts between the river-valleys vary in extent, the largest being more than 70 m. across. On their western margin steep cliffs generally rise from the sea, above which is the fablazo or plateau, in some places slightly undulating, in others with ridges of considerable height rising out of it. The surface is generally hard, but in many places there are large accumulations of drifting sea-sand. The sand usually forms isolated hillocks, called medanos, of a half-moon shape, having their convex sides towards the tradewind. They are from 10 to 20 ft. high, with an acute crest, the inner side perpendicular, the outer with a steep slope. Sometimes, especially at early dawn, there is a musical noise in the desert, like the sound of distant drums, which is caused by the eddying of grains of sand in the heated atmosphere, on the crests of the medanos. Apparently the deserts are destitute of all vegetation: yet three kinds of herbs exist, which bury themselves deep in the earth, and survive long periods of drought. One is an amaranthaceous plant, whose stems ramify through the sandhills; the other two are a Martynia and an Aniseia, which maintain a subterranean existence during many years, and only produce leafy stems in those rare seasons when sufficient moisture penetrates to the roots. In a few hollows which are reached by moisture the trees of the desert find support, the algarrobo (Prosopis horrida), a low tree of very scraggy growth, dendrum scabridum), mere shrubs. Near the Cordillera and on its the vichaya (Capparis crotonoides), and the zapote del perro (Colicolower slopes a tall branched cactus is met with, and there are Salicornias and Salsolas near the coast. But, when the mists set in, the low hills near the coast bordering the deserts, which are called lomas, undergo a change as if by magic. A blooming vegetation of wild flowers for a short time covers the barren hills. Near Lima one of the low ranges is brightened by the beautiful yellow lily called amancaes (Ismene Amancaes). The other flowers of the lomas are the papita de San Juan (Begonia gerunifolia), with red petals contrasting with the white inner sides, valerians, the beautiful Bomarea ovata, several species of Oxalis, Solanum and crucifers. But this carpet of flowers is very partially distributed and lasts but a short time.

The valleys form a marvellous contrast to the surrounding desert. A great mass of pale-green foliage is usually composed of the algarrobo trees, while the course of the river is marked by lines or groups of palms, by fine old willows (Salix humboldtiana), fruit-gardens, and fields of cotton, Indian corn, sugar-cane and alfalfa (lucerne). In some valleys there are expanses of sugar-cane, in others cotton, whilst in others vineyards and olive-yards predominate. The woods of algarrobo are used for pasture, cattle and horses enjoying the pendulous yellow pods.

For purposes of description the coast-region of Peru may be divided into five sections, beginning from the north: (1) the Piura region; (2) the Lambayeque and Trujillo section; Sections of (3) the Santa valleys; (4) the section from Lima to Nasca; the Coast. (5) the Arequipa and Tacna section.

(1) The great desert-region of Piura extends for nearly 200 m. from the Gulf of Guayaquil to the borders of the Morrope Valley, and is traversed by three rivers-the Tumbes, Chira and Piura, the two former receiving their waters from the inner Cordillera and breaking through the outer range. It is here that the coast of South America extends farthest to the westward until it reaches Capes Blanco and Pariña, and then turns southward to the Bay of Paita. The climate of Piura is modified by the lower latitude, and also by the vicinity of the forests of Guayaquil. Fog and garua are much less frequent than in the coast-region farther south, while rain sometimes falls. At intervals of three or four years there are occasional heavy showers of rain from February to April. (2) The second section of the coast-region includes the valleys of the Morrope, the Chiclayo, and Lambayeque, the Saña, the Jequetepeque, the Chicama, Moche, Viru and Chao. With the intervening deserts this section extends over 200 m. All these valleys, except Morrope and Chao, are watered by rivers which have their sources far in the recesses of the mountains, and which furnish an abundant supply in the season when irrigation is needed. (3) The third section, also extending for 200 m., contains the valleys of Santa, Nepeña, Casma, Huarmey, Fortaleza, Pativilca, Supé and Huaura. The river Santa, which rises in the lake of Conococha, 12,907 ft. above the sea, and has a length of 180 m., is remarkable for its long course between the outer and central ranges of the Andes, in a trough known as the " Callejon de Huaylas," 100 m. in length. It then breaks through in a deep gorge, and reaches the sea after a course of 35 m. over the coast-belt, and after fertilizing a rich valley. The Santa and Nepeña valleys are separated by a desert 8 leagues in width, on the shores of which there is a good anchorage in the bay of Ferrol, where the port of Chimbote is the terminus of a railway. The Nepeña, Casma, Huarmey, Fortaleza and Supé rivers rise on the slope of an outer range called the Cordillera Negra, and are consequently dry during the great part of the year. Wells are dug in their beds, and the fertility of the valleys is thus maintained. The Pativilca (or Barranca) river and the Huaura break

through the outer range from their distant sources in the snowy Cordillera, and have a perennial supply of water. There are 9 leagues of desert between the Nepeña and Casma, 16 between the Casma and Huarmey, and 18 between the Huarmey and Fortaleza. The latter desert, much of which is loose sand, is called the Pampa de Mata Cavallos, from the number of exhausted animals which die there. Between the Supé and Pativilca is the desert called the Pampa del Medio Mundo. (4) The next coast-section extends for over 300 m., from Chancay to Nasca, and includes the rivers of Chancay or Lacha, of Carabayllo, Rimac, Lurin, Mala, Cañete, Chincha, Pisco or Chunchanga, Ica and Rio Grande. Here the maritime range approaches the ocean, leaving a narrower strip of coast, but the fertile valleys are closer and more numerous. Those of Carabayllo and Rimac are connected, and the view from the Bay of Callao extends over a vast expanse of fertile plain bounded by the Andes, with the white towers of Lima in a setting of verdure. Lurin and Mala are smaller valleys, but the great vale of Cañete is one green sheet of sugar-cane; and narrow strips of desert separate it from the fertile plain of Chincha, and Chincha from the famous vineyards of Pisco. The valleys of Ica, Palpa, San Xavier and Nasca are rich and fertile, though they do not extend to the sea; but between Nasca and Acari there is a desert 60 m. in width. (5) The Arequipa and Tacna section extends over 350 m. and comprises the valleys of Acari, Atequipa, Atico, Ocoña, Majes or Camana, Quilca, with the interior valley of Arequipa, Tambo, Ilo or Moquegua, Ité or Locumba, Sama, Tacna, and Azapa or Arica. Here the Western Cordillera recedes, and the important valley of Arequipa, though on its western slope, is 7000 ft. above the sea and 90 m. from the coast. Most of the rivers here have their sources in the central range, and are well supplied with water. The coast-valleys through which they flow, especially those of Majes and Locumba, are famous for their vineyards, and in the valley of Tambo there are extensive olive plantations.

The coast of Peru has few protected anchorages, and the headlands are generally abrupt and lofty. These and the few islands are frequented by sea-birds, whence come the guanoIslands. deposits, the retention of ammonia and other fertilizing properties being due to the absence of rain. The islets off the coast are all barren and rocky.

The most northern is Foca, in 5° 13′ 30′′ S., near the coast to the south of Paita. The islands of Lobos de Tierra and Lobos de Afuera (2) in 6° 27′ 45′′ S. and 6° 56′ 45′′ S. respectively, are off the desert of Sechura, and contain deposits of guano. The two Afuera islands are 60 and 36 m. respectively from the coast at the port of San José. The islets of Macabi, in 7° 49' 20" S., also have guano deposits, now practically exhausted. The two islets of Guañape, surrounded by many rocks, in 8° 34′ S., contain rich deposits. Chao rises 450 ft. above the sea, off the coast, in 8° 46' 30" S. Corcobado is in 8° 57′ S. La Viuda is off the port of Casma, in 9° 23′ 30′′ S.; and Tortuga is 2 m. distant to the north. Santa Islet lies off the bay of Cosca, in 9° 1' 40", and the three high rocks of Ferrol in 9° 8' 30" S. Farther south there is the group of islets and rocks called Huaura, in 11°27′ S., the chief of which are El Pelado, Tambillo, Chiquitana, Bravo, Quitacalzones and Mazorque. The Hormigas are in 11° 4' S. and 11° 58', and the Pescadores in 11° 47′ S. The island of San Lorenzo, in 12° 4' S., is a lofty mass, 4 m. long by 1 broad, forming the Bay of Callao; its highest point is 1050 ft. Off its south-east end lies a small but lofty islet called Fronton, and to the south-west are the Palomitas Rocks. Horadada Islet, with a hole through it, is to the south of Callao Point. Off the valley of Lurin are the Pachacamac Islands, the most northern and largest being half a mile long. The next, called San Francisco, is like a sugar-loaf, perfectly rounded at the top. The others are mere rocks. Asia Island is farther south, 17 m. north-west of Cerro Azul, and about a mile in circuit. Pisco Bay contains San Gallan Island, high, with a bold cliff outline, 24 m. long by I broad, the Ballista Islets, and farther north the three famous Chincha Islands, whose vast guano deposits are now exhausted. South of the entrance to Pisco Bay is Zarate Island, and farther south the white level islet of Santa Rosa. The Infiernillo rock is quite black, about 50 ft. high, in the form of a sugar-loaf, a mile west of the point of Santa Maria, which is near the mouth of the Ica river. Alacran is a small islet off the lofty morro of Arica. All these rocks and islets are barren and uninhabitable. The more common sea-birds are the Sula variegata or guano-bird, a large gull called the Larus modestus, the Pelecanus thayus, and the Sterna Ynca, a beautiful tern with curved white feathers on each side of the head. The rarest of all the gulls is also found on the Peruvian coast, namely, the Xema furcatum. Sea-lions (Otaria forsteri) are common on the rocky islands and promontories. The region of the Cordilleras of the Andes is divided into puna, or lofty uninhabited wilderness, and sierra, or inhabitable mountain slopes and valleys. This great mountain-system, Sierra. running south-east to north-west, consists of three chains or cordilleras. The two chains, which run parallel and near each other on the western side, are of identical origin, and have been separated by the action of water during many centuries. On these chains are the volcanoes and many thermal springs. The narrow space between them is for the most part, but not always, a cold and lofty region known as the puna containing alpine lakes the sources of the coast-rivers. The great eastern chain, rising from

the basin of the Amazon and forming the inner wall of the system, is of distinct origin. These three chains are called the Western or Maritime Cordillera, the Central Cordillera and the Andes. Paz Soldan and other Peruvian geographers give the name of Andes, par excellence, to the Eastern Cordillera.

The Maritime Cordillera of Peru has no connexion with the coast ranges of Chile, but is a continuation of the Cordillera Occidental of Chile, which under various local names forms the eastern margin of the coastal desert belt. from Atacama northward into Peru. It contains a regular chain of volcanic peaks overlooking the coastregion of Tarapacá. Chief among them are the snowy peak of Lirima (19,128 ft.) over the ravine of Tarapacá, the volcano of Isluga overhanging Camiña, the Bolivian peak of Sajama, and Tocora (19,741 ft.) near the Bolivian frontier. In rear of Moquegua there is a group of volcanic peaks, clustering round those of Ubinas and Huaynaputina. A great eruption of Huaynaputina began on the 15th of February 1600 and continued until the 28th. But generally these volcanoes are quiescent. Farther north the Misti volcano rises over the city of Arequipa in a perfect cone to a height of over 20,013 ft., and near its base are the hot sulphur and iron springs of Yura. The peak of Sarasara, in Parinacochas (Ayacucho) is 19,500 ft. above the sea, and in the mountains above Lima the passes attain a height of more than 15,000 ft. In latitude 10° S. the maritime chain separates into two branches, which run parallel to each other for 100 m., enclosing the remarkable ravine of Callejon de Huaylas-the eastern or main branch being known as the Cordillera Nevada and the western as the Cordillera Negra. On the Nevada the peak of Huascan reaches a height of 22,051 ft. The Huandoy peak, above Carhuaz, rises to 21,088 ft.; the Hualcan peak, overhanging the town of Yungay, is 19,945 ft. high; and most of the peaks in this part of the chain reach a height of 19,000 ft. During the rainy season, from October to May, the sky is generally clear at dawn, and the magnificent snowy peaks are clearly seen. But as the day advances the clouds collect. In most parts of the Peruvian Andes the line of perpetual snow is at 16,400 ft.; but on the Cordillera Nevada, above the Callejon de Huaylas, it sinks to 15,400 ft. This greater cold is caused by the intervention of the Cordillera Negra, which intercepts the warmth from the coast. As this lower chain does not reach the snow-line, the streams rising from it are scanty, while the Santa, Pativilca and other coast-rivers which break through it from sources in the snowy chain have a greater volume from the melted snows. At the point where the river Santa breaks through the Cordillera Negra that range begins to subside, while the Maritime Cordillera continues as one chain to and beyond the frontier of Ecuador.

The Central Cordillera is the true water-parting of the system. No river, except the Marañon, breaks through it either to the east or west, while more than twenty coast streams rise on its slopes and force their way through the maritime chain. The Central Cordillera consists mainly of crystalline and volcanic rocks, on each side of which are aqueous, in great part Jurassic, strata thrown up almost vertically. In 14° 30' S. the central chain is connected with the Eastern Andes by the transverse mountain-knot of Vilcañota, the peak of that name being 17,651 ft. above the sea. The great inland basin of Lake Titicaca is thus formed. The central chain continues to run parallel with the Maritime Cordillera until, at Cerro Pasco, another transverse knot connects it with the Andes in 10° 30′ S. lat. It then continues northward, separating the basins of the Marañon and Huallaga; and at the northern frontier of Peru it is at length broken through by the Marañon flowing eastward.

The Eastern Andes is a magnificent range in the southern part of Peru, of Silurian formation, with talcose and clay slates, many quartz veins and eruptions of granitic rocks. Mr Forbes says that the peaks of Illampu (21,709 ft.) and Illimani (21,014 ft.) in Bolivia are Silurian and fossiliferous to their summits. The eastern range is cut through by six rivers in Peru, namely, the Marañon and Huallaga, the Perene, Mantaro, Apurimac, Vilcamayu and Paucartambo, the last five being tributaries of the Ucayali. The range of the Andes in south Peru has a high plateau to the west and the vast plains of the Amazonian basin to the east. The whole range is highly auriferous, and the thickness of the strata is not less than 10,000 ft. It is nowhere disturbed by volcanic eruptions, except at the very edge of the formation near Lake Titicaca, and in this respect it differs essentially from the Maritime Cordillera. To the eastward numerous spurs extend for varying distances into the great plain of the Amazons.

The Andes lose their majestic height to the northward; and beyond Cerro Pasco the eastern chain sinks into a lower range between the Huallaga and Ucayali. But throughout the length of Peru the three ranges are clearly defined.

For purposes of description the sierra of Peru may be divided into four sections, each embracing portions of all three ranges. The first, from the north, comprises the upper basins of the Marañon and the Huallaga, and is 350 m. long by Sierra.

Sections of

100 broad. The second extends from the Knot of Cerro Pasco to Ayacucho, about 200 m., including the Lake of Chinchay-cocha and the basin of the river Xauxa. The third or Cuzco section extends 250 m. to the Knot of Vilcañota with the basins of the Pampas, Apurimac, Vilcamayu and Paucartambo. The fourth is the basin of Lake Titicaca.

Lake Junin, or Chinchay-cocha, in the second section, is 36 m. long by 7 m. broad, and 13,232 ft. above the sea. Its marshy banks are overgrown with reeds and inhabited by numerous waterfowl. From this lake the river Xauxa flows southwards through a populous valley for 150 m. before entering the forests. Lake Titicaca (see BOLIVIA), in the fourth or most southern section, is divided between Peru and Bolivia. It receives a number of short streams from the ranges shutting in the upper end of the valley; the largest is the Ramiz, formed by the two streams of Pucara and Azangaro, both coming from the Knot of Vilcañota to the north. The Suches, which has its source in Lake Suches, falls into Lake Titicaca on the north-west side, as well as the Yllpa and Ylave. The principal islands are Titicaca and Coati (at the south end near the peninsula of Copacabana), Campanaria (9 m. from the east shore), Soto and Esteves. There are two other lakes in the Collao, as the elevated region round Titicaca is called. Lake Arapa, a few miles from the northern shore of Titicaca, is 30 m. in circumference. Lake Umayo is on higher ground to the westward. The lake in Peru which is third in size is that of Parinacochas on the coast watershed, near the foot of the snowy peak of Sarasara. It is 12 m. long by 6 broad, but has never been visited and described by any modern traveller. The smaller alpine lakes, often forming the sources of rivers, are numerous.

Flora and

The great rivers of the sierra are the Marañon, rising in the lake of Lauricocha and flowing northward in a deep gorge between the Maritime and Central Cordilleras for 350 m., when it forces its way through the mountains at the famous Pongo de Manseriche and enters the Amazonian plain. The Huallaga rises north of Cerro Pasco, and, passing Huanuco, flows northwards on the other side of the Central Cordillera for 300 m. It breaks through the range at the Pongo de Chasuta and falls into the Marañon. The other great rivers are tributaries of the Ucayali. The Pozuzu, flowing eastward from the Knot of Cerro Pasco, joins the Pachitea, which is the most important northern affluent of the Ucayali. The Xauxa, becoming afterwards the Mantaro, receives the drainage of Xauxa, Huancavelica and Ayacucho. The southern valleys of this part of the sierra furnish streams which form the main rivers of Pampas, Pachachaca and Apurimac. These, uniting with the Mantaro, form the Ené, and the Ené and Perené (which drains the province of Tambo) form the Tambo. The Vilcamayu rises on the Knot of Vilcañota, flows north through a lovely valley, received the Yanatilde and Paucartambo on its right bank, and, uniting with the Tambo, forms the Ucayali. Most of these main streams flow through profound gorges in a tropical climate, while the upper slopes yield products of the temperate zone, and the plateaus above are cold and bleak, affording only pasture and the hardiest cereals. The great variety of elevation within the sierra produces vegetation belonging to every zone. There is a tropical flora in the deep gorges, higher up a sub-tropical, then a temperSierran ate, then a sub-arctic flora. In ascending from the coast-valleys there is first an arid range, where the great-branched cacti rear themselves up among the rocks. Farther inland, where the rains are more plentiful, is the native home of the potato. Here also are other plants with edible roots-the oca (Oxalis tuberosa), ulluca (Ullucus tuberosus), massua (Tropaeolum tuberosum), and learcó (Polymnia sonchifolia). Among the first wild shrubs and trees that are met with are the chilca (Baccharis Feuiller), with a pretty yellow flower, the Mutisia acuminata, with beautiful red and orange flowers, several species of Senecio, calceolarias, the Schinus molle, with its graceful branches and bunches of red berries, and at higher elevations the lambras (Alnus acuminata), the sauco (Sambucus peruviana), the queñuar (Buddleia incana), and the Polylepis racemosa. Buddleia, locally called oliva silvestre, flourishes at a height of 12,000 ft. round the shores of Lake Titicaca. The most numerously represented family is the Compositae, the grasses being next in number. The temperate valleys of the sierra yield fruits of many kinds. Those indigenous to the country are the delicious chirimoyas, paltas or alligator pears, the paccay, a species of Inga, the lucma, and the granadilla or fruit of the passion-flower. Vineyards and sugar-cane yield crops in the warmer ravines; the sub-tropical valleys are famous for splendid crops of maize; wheat and barley thrive on the mountain slopes; and at heights from 7000 to 13,000 ft. there are crops of quinua (Chenopodium quinua). In the loftiest regions the pasture chiefly consists of a coarse grass (Stipa ychu), of which the llamas eat the upper blades and the sheep browse on the tender shoots beneath. There are also two kinds of shrubby plants, a thorny Composita called "ccanlli" and another, called " tola," which is a resinous Baccharis and is used for fuel.

Fauna.

The

The animals which specially belong to the Peruvian Andes are the domestic llamas and alpacas and the wild vicuñas. There are deer, called taruco (Cervus antisensis); the viscacha, a large rodent; a species of fox called atoc; and the puma (Felis concolor) and ucumari or black bear with a white muzzle, when driven by hunger, wander into the loftier regions. The largest bird is the condor, and there is another bird of the vulture tribe, with a black and white wing feather formerly used by the Incas in their head-dress, called the coraquenque or alcamari. The pito is a brown speckled creeper which flutters about the rocks. There is a little bird, the size of a starling, with brown back striped with black, and white breast, which the

sea.

Indians call yncahualpa; it utters a monotonous sound at each hour of the night. A partridge called yutu frequents the long grass. On the lakes there is a very handsome goose, with white body and dark-green wings shading into violet, called huachua, two kinds of ibis, a large gull (Larus serranus) frequenting the alpine lakes in flocks, flamingoes called parihuana, ducks and water-hens. Many pretty little finches fly about the maize-fields and fruit-gardens, and a little green parakeet is met with as high as 12,000 ft. above the The third division of Peru is the region of the tropical forests, at the base of the Andes, and within the basin of the Amazon. It is traversed by great navigable rivers. The Marañon, Montaña. having burst through the defile of the Pongo de Manseriche (575 ft. above sea level), and the Huallaga through that of Chasuta, enter the forests and unite after separate courses of about 600 and 400 m., the united flood then flowing eastward to the Brazilian frontier. After 150 m. it is joined by the Ucayali, a great navigable river with a course of 600 m. The country between the Huallaga and the Ucayali, traversed by the Eastern Cordillera, is called the Pampa del Sacramento, and is characterized by extensive grassy plains. The forests drained by the Marañon, Huallaga and Ucayali form the northern portion of the Peruvian montaña. The southern half of the montaña is watered by streams flowing from the eastern Andes, which go to form the river Madre de Dios or Amarumayu, the principal branch of the river Beni, which falls into the Madeira. The region of the Peruvian montaña, which is 800 m. long from the Marañon to the Bolivian frontier, is naturally divided into two sections, the sub-tropical forests in the ravines and on the eastern slopes of the Andes, and the dense tropical forests in the Amazonian plain. The sub-tropical section is impor tant from the value of its products and interesting from the grandeur and beauty of its scenery. Long spurs run off from the Andes, gradually decreasing in elevation, and it is sometimes a distance of 60 or 80 m. before they finally subside into the vast forest-covered plains of the Amazon basin. Numerous rivers flow through the valleys between these spurs, which are the native home of the quinine-yielding cinchona trees. The most valuable species, called C. Calisaya, is found in the forests of Caravaya in south Peru and in those of Bolivia. The species between Caravaya and the headwaters of the Huallaga yield very little of the febrifuge alkaloid. But the forests of Huanuco and Huamalios abound in species yielding the grey bark of commerce, which is rich in cinchonine, an alkaloid efficacious as a febrifuge, though inferior to quinine. With the cinchona trees grow many kinds of melastomaceae, especially the Lasiandra, with masses of purple flowers, tree-ferns and palms. In the warm valleys there are large plantations of coca (Erythro xylon Coca), the annual produce of which is stated at 15,000,000 lb. The other products of these warm valleys are excellent coffee, cocoa, sugar, tropical fruits of all kinds, and gold in abundance. In the vast untrodden forests farther east there are timber trees of many kinds, incense trees, a great wealth of rubber trees of the Hevea genus, numerous varieties of beautiful palms, sarsaparilla, vanilla, ipecac uanha and copaiba. The abundant and varied fauna is the same as that of the Brazilian forests.

Geology, The Eastern Cordillera, which, however, is but little known, appears to consist, as in Bolivia, chiefly of Palaeozoic rocks; the western ranges of the Andes are formed of Mesozoic beds, together with recent volcanic lavas and ashes; and the lower hills near the coast are composed of granite, syenite and other crystalline rocks, sometimes accompanied by limestones and sandstones, which are probably of Lower Cretaceous age, and often covered by marine Tertiary deposits. Thus the orographical features of the country correspond broadly with the geological divisions.

The constitution of the Mesozoic band varies. Above Lima the western chain of the Andes is composed of porphyritic_tuffs and massive limestones, while the longitudinal valley of the Oroya is hollowed in carbonaceous sandstones. From the analogy of the neighbouring countries it is possible that some of the tuffs may be Jurassic, but the other deposits probably belong for the most part to the Cretaceous system. The carbonaceous sandstone contains Gault fossils. Like the similar sandstone in Bolivia, it includes seams of coal and is frequently impregnated with cinnabar. It is in this sandstone that the rich mercury mines of Huancavelica are worked.

Farther north, in the department of Ancachs, the Mesozoic belt is composed chiefly of sandstones and shales, and the limestones which form so prominent a feature above Lima seem to have disappeared. The Cordillera Negra in this region is in many places cut by numerous dikes of diorite, and it is near these dikes that silver ores are chiefly

y

1 See L. Crosnier, "Notice géologique sur les départements de Huancavelica et d'Ayacucho," Ann. des mines, 5th series, vol. ii. pp. 1-43, Pl. 1 (1852); A. Raimondi, El Departamento de Ancachs sus riquezas minerales (Lima, 1873); G. Steinmann, "Ueber Tithon und Kreide in den peruanischen Anden," Neues Jahrb. (1882), vol. ii. pp. 130-153, Pls. 6-8; K. Gerhardt, "Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Kreideformation in Venezueia und Peru," Neues Jahrb., Beil.-Bd. XI. (1897), pp. 65-117, Pls. 1, 2; J. Grzybowski, "Die Tertiärablagerungen des nördlichen Peru und ihre Molluskenfauna," Neues Jahrb., Beil.Bd. XII. (1899), pp. 610-664, Pls. 15-20.