leaves it in the form called Cercaria, which is really an immature condition of the adult. The Cercaria makes its way into the tissues of a mussel and there becomes enclosed in the cyst previously described. If the mussel is then swallowed by the duck the Cercariae develop into adult Trematodes or flukes in the liver or intestines of the bird. In the mussels which escape being devoured the parasites cannot develop further, and they die and become embedded in the nacreous deposit which forms a pearl. Dr Jameson points out that, as in other cases, pearls in Mytilus are common in certain special localities and rare elsewhere, and that the said localities are those where the parasite and its hosts are plentiful. The first suggestion that the most valuable pearls obtained from pearl oysters in tropical oceans might be due to parasites was made by Kelaart in reports to the government of Ceylon in 1857-1859. Recently a special investigation of the Ceylon pearl fishery has been organized by Professor Herdman. Herdman and Hornell find that in the pearl oyster of Ceylon Margaritifera vulgaris, Schum, the nucleus of the pearl is, in all specimens examined, the larva of a Cestode or tapeworm. This larva is of globular form and is of the type known as a cysticercus. As in the case of the mussel the larva dies in its cyst and its remains are enshrined in nacreous deposit, so that, as a French writer has said, the ornament associated in all ages with beauty and riches is nothing but the brilliant sarcophagus of a worm. The cysticercus described by Herdman and Hornell has on the surface a muscular zone within which is a depression containing a papilla which can be protruded. It was at first identified as the larva of a tapeworm called Tetrarhynchus, and Professor Herdman concluded that the life-history of the pearl parasite consisted of four stages, the first being exhibited by free larvae which were taken at the surface of the sea, the second that in the pearl oyster, the third a form found in the bodies of file-fishes which feed on the oysters, and the fourth or adult stage living in some species of large ray. It has not however been proved that the pearl parasite is a Tetrarhynchus, nor that it is connected with the free larva or the form found in the file-fish, Balistes; nor has the adult form been identified. All that is certain is that the pearls are due to the presence of a parasite which is the larva of a Cestode; all the rest is probability or possibility. A French naturalist, M. Seurat, studying the pearl oyster of the Gambier Archipelago in the Pacific, found that pearl formation was due to a parasite quite similar to that described by Herdman and Hornell. This parasite was described by Professor Giard as characterized by a rostrum armed with a single terminal sucker and he did not identify it with Tetrarhynchus. Genuine precious pearls and the most valuable mother-of-pearl are produced by various species and varieties of the genus Meleagrina of Lamarck, for which Dr Jameson in his recent revision of the species prefers the name Margaritifera. The genus is represented in tropical regions in all parts of the world. It belongs to the family Aviculidae, which is allied to the Pectens or scallop shells. In this family the hinge border is straight and prolonged into two auriculae; the foot has a very stout byssus. Meleagrina is distinguished by the small size or complete absence of the posterior auricula. The species are as follows. The type species is Meleagrina margaritifera, which has no teeth on the hinge. Geographical races are distinguished by different names in the trade. Specimens from the Malay Archipelago have a dark band along the margin of the nacre and are known as black-edged Banda shell; those from Australia and New Guinea and the neighbouring islands of the western Pacific are called Australian and New Guinea black-lip. Another variety occurs in Tahiti, Gambier Islands and Eastern Polynesia generally, yielding both pearls and shell. It occurs also in China, Ceylon, the Andaman Islands and the Maldives. Another form is taken at Zanzibar, Madagascar, and the neighbouring islands, and is called Zanzibar and Madagascar shell. Bombay shell is another local form fished in the Persian Gulf and shipped via Bombay. The Red Sea variety is known as Egyptian shell. Another variety occurs along the west coast of America and from Panama to Vancouver, and supplies Panama shell and some pearls. A larger form, attaining a foot in diameter and a weight of 10 lb per pair of shells, is considered as a distinct species by Dr Jameson and named Margaritifera maxima. It is found along the north coast of Australia and New Guinea and the Malay Archipelago. The nacreous surface of this shell is white, without the black or dark margin of the common species; it is known in the trade as the silver-lip, gold-lip and by other names. It is the most valuable species of mother-of-pearl oyster. Dr Jameson distinguishes in addition to the above thirty-two species of Margaritifera or Meleagrina; all these have rudimentary teeth on the hinge. The most important species is Meleagrina vulgaris, to which belong the pearl oyster of Ceylon and southern India, the lingah shell of the Persian Gulf and the pearl oyster of the Red Sea. Since the opening of the Suez Canal the latter form Alexandria and at Malta, and attempts have been made to cultivate has invaded the Mediterranean, specimens having been taken at it on the French coast. The species occurs also on the coasts of the Malay Peninsula, Australia and New Guinea, where it is fished both for its shells (Australian lingah) and for pearls. Two species occur grina carchariarum is the Shark's Bay shell of the London market. on the coasts of South Africa but have no market value. MeleaIt is taken in large quantities at Shark's Bay, Western Australia, and is of rather small value; it also yields pearls of inferior quality. The pearl oyster of Japan, known as Japan lingah, is probably a variety of Meleagrina vulgaris. Meleagrina radiata is the West Indian pearl oyster. The largest and steadiest consumption of mother-of-pearl is in the button trade, and much is also consumed by cutlers for handles of fruit and dessert knives and forks, pocket-knives, &c. It is also used in the inlaying of Japanese and Chinese lacquers, European lacquered papier-mâché work, trays, &c., and as an ornamental inlay generally. The carving of pilgrim shells and the elaboration of crucifixes and ornamental work in mother-of-pearl is a distinctive industry of the monks and other inhabitants of Bethlehem. Among the South Sea Islands the shell is largely fashioned into fishing-hooks. Among shells other than those of Meleagrina margaritifera used as mother-of-pearl may be mentioned the Green Ear or Ormer shell (Haliotis tuberculata) and several other species of Haliotis, besides various species of Turbo. 66 Artificial pearls were first made in western Europe in 1680 by Jacquin, a rosary-maker in Paris, and the trade is now largely carried on in France, Germany and Italy. Spheres of thin glass are filled with a preparation known as essence d'orient," made from the silvery scales of the bleak or ablette," which is caused to adhere to the inner wall of the globe, and the cavity is then filled with glass of nacreous lustre, and the soft appearance of the pearl obtained white wax. Many imitation pearls are now formed of an opaline by the judicious use of hydrofluoric acid. An excellent substitute for black pearl is found in the so-called ironstone jewelry," and consists of close-grained haematite, not too highly polished; but the Pink pearls are imitated by turning small spheres out of the rosy great density of the haematite immediately destroys the illusion. part of the conch shell, or even out of pink coral. 46 See Clements R. Markham, "The Tinnevelly Pearl Fishery," in Journ. Soc. Arts (1867), xv., 256; D. T. Macgowan, "Pearls and Natural and Artificial Production of Pearls in China," in Journ. Roy. Pearl-making in China," ibid. (1854), ii. 72; F. Hague, "On the Asiatic Soc. (1856), vol. xvi.; H. J. Le Beck, “Pearl Fishery in the Gulf of Manar," in Asiatic Researches (1798), v. 393; K. Möbius, Die echten Perlen (Hamburg, 1857); H. Lyster Jameson, "Formation Distribution of Mother-of-Pearl Oysters," Proc. Zool. Soc. (1901), of Pearls," Proc. Zool. Soc. (1902), pl. 1; idem," On the Identity and pl. 1, pp. 372-394; Herdman and Hornell, Rep. Ceylon Pearl Fisheries (London, Royal Soc., 1903); and Kunz and Stevenson, Book of the Pearl (New York, 1908), with bibliography. (J. T. Č.) PEARL, THE. The Middle-English poem known as Pearl, or The Pearl, is preserved in the unique manuscript Cotton Nero Ax at the British Museum; in this volume are contained also the poems Cleanness, Patience, and Sir Gawayne and the Green Knight. All the pieces are in the same handwriting, and from internal evidences of dialect, style and parallel references, it is now generally accepted that the poems are all by the same author. The MS., which is quaintly illustrated, belongs to the end of the 14th or the beginning of the 15th century, and appears to be but little later than the date of composition; no line of Pearl or of the other poems is elsewhere to be found. Pearl is a poet's lament for the loss of a girl-child, "who lived not upon earth two years "-the poet is evidently the child's father. In grief he visits the little grave, and there in a vision beholds his Pearl, now transfigured as a queen of heaven-he sees her beneath " a crystal rock," beyond a stream; the dreamer would fain cross over, but cannot. From the opposite bank Pearl, grown in wisdom as in stature, instructs him in lessons of faith and resignation, expounds to him the mystery of her transfiguration, and leads him to a glimpse of the New Jerusalem. New Jerusalem. Suddenly the city is filled with glorious maidens, who in long procession glide towards the throne, all of them clad in white, pearl-bedecked robes as Pearl herself. And there he sees, too, "his little queen." A great lovelonging possesses him to be by her. He must needs plunge into the stream that keeps him from her. In the very effort the dreamer awakes, to find himself resting upon the little mound where his Pearl had "strayed below": "I roused me, and fell in great dismay, The poem consists of one hundred and one stanzas, each of twelve lines, with four accents, rhymed ab, ab, ab, ab, bc, bc; the versification combines rhyme with alliteration; trisyllabic effects add to the easy movement and lyrical charm of the lines. Five stanzas (in one case six), with the same refrain, constitute a section, of which accordingly there are twenty in all, the whole sequence being linked together by the device of making the first line of each stanza catch up the refrain of the previous verse, the last line of the poem re-echoing the first line. The author was not the creator of this form, nor was he the last to use it. The extant pieces in the metre are short religious poems, some of the later (e.g. God's Complaint, falsely attributed to Scottish authorship) revealing the influence of Pearl. The dialect is West Midland, or rather North-West Midland, and the vocabulary is remarkable for the blending of native speech with Scandinavian and Romance elements, the latter partly Anglo-French, and partly learned French, due to the author's knowledge of French literature. "While the main part of the poem," according to Gollancz, "is a paraphrase of the closing chapters of the Apocalypse and the parable of the Vineyard, the poet's debt to the Romaunt of the Rose is noteworthy, more particularly in the description of the wonderful land through which the dreamer wanders; and it can be traced throughout the poem, in the personification of Pearl as Reason, in the form of the colloquy, in the details of dress and ornament, in many a characteristic word, phrase and reference. The river from the throne,' in the Apocalypse, here meets the waters of the wells' devised by Sir Mirth for the Garden of the Rose. From these two sources, the Book of Revelation, with its almost Celtic glamour, and The Romaunt of the Rose, with its almost Oriental allegory, are derived much of the wealth and brilliancy of the poem. The poet's fancy revels in the richness of the heavenly and the earthly paradise, but his fancy is subordinated to his earnestness and intensity." The leading motifs of Pearl are to be found in the Gospel in the allegory of the merchant who sold his all to purchase one pearl of great price, and in the words, so fraught with solace for the child-bereft, "for of such is the Kingdom of Heaven." Naturally arising from the theme, and from these motifs, some theological problems of the time are touched upon, or treated somewhat too elaborately perhaps, and an attempt has been made to demonstrate that Pearl is merely allegorical and theological, and not really a lament. Those who hold this view surely ignore or fail to recognize the subtle personal touches whereby the poem transcends all its theological interests, and makes its simple and direct appeal to the human heart. Herein, too, lies its abiding charm, over and above the poetical talent, the love of nature, colour and the picturesque, the technical skill, and the descriptive power, which in a high degree belonged to the unknown poet. Various theories have been advanced as to the authorship of Pearl and the other poems in the manuscript. The claims of Huchown of the Awle Ryale" have been vigorously (but unsuccessfully) advocated; the case in favour of Ralph Strode (Chaucer's "philosophical Strode ")-the most attractive of all the theories—is still, unfortunately, "not proven." By piecing together the personal indications to be found in the poems an imaginary biography of the poet may be constructed. It may safely be inferred that he was born about 1330, somewhere in Lancashire, or a little to the north; that he delighted in openair life, in woodcraft and sport; that his early life was passed amid the gay scenes that brightened existence in medieval hall and bower; that he availed himself of opportunities of study, theology and romance alike claiming him; that he wedded, and had a child named Margery or Marguerite-the Daisy, or the Pearl at whose death his happiness drooped and life's joy ended. The four poems are closely linked and belong to one period of the poet's career. In Gawayne, probably the first of the four, the poet is still the minstrel rejoicing in the glamour of the Arthurian tale, but using it, in almost Spenserian spirit, to point a moral. In Pearl the minstrel has become the elegiac poet, harmonizing the old Teutonic form with the newer Romance rhyme. In Cleanness he has discarded all attractions of form, and writes, in direct alliterative metre, a stern homily on chastity. In Patience-a homiletic paraphrase of Jonah-he appears to be autobiographical, reminding himself, while teaching others, that "Poverty and Patience are needs playfellows." He had evidently fallen on evil days. It is noteworthy that soon after 1358 Boccaccio wrote his Latin eclogue Olympia in memory of his young daughter Violante. A comparative study of the two poems is full of interest; the direct influence of the Latin on the English poem is not so clear as has been maintained. Pearl cannot be placed earlier than 1360; it is most probably later than Olympia. BIBLIOGRAPHY.-Texts and Translations: Early Alliterative Poems in the West Midland Dialect of the Fourteenth Century (edited by Richard Morris, Early English Text Society I. 1864; revised, 1869, 1885, 1896, 1901); Pearl, an English Poem of the Fourteenth Century, edited, with a Modern Rendering, by Israel Gollancz (with frontispiece by Holman Hunt, and prefatory lines, sent to the editor by Tennyson); revised edition of the text, privately printed, 1897; new edition of text and translation, "King's Classics," 19101911; Facsimile of MS. Cotton Nero Ax, 1910-1911; The Pearl, (edited by C. G. Osgood; Boston, 1906). Translations by Gollancz (as above); G. G. Coulton (1906); Osgood (1907); Miss Mead (1908); Miss Jewett (1908); part of the poem, by S. Weir Mitchell (1906). Literary History: Tenbrink, History of English Literature (translated by H. M. Kennedy, 1889, i. 336-351); G. Nelson, Huchown of the Awle Ryale (Glasgow, 1902); Carleton Brown, The Author of the Pearl, considered in the Light of his Theological Opinions (publications of the Modern Languages Association of America, xix. 115-153; 1904); W. G. Schofield, The Nature and Fabric of the Pearl (ibid. pp. 154-215; 1904); also Symbolism, Allegory and History of English Literature, vol. i. ch. xv. Autobiography (ibid. xxiv. 585-675; 1909); I. Gollancz, Cambridge Works connected with Pearl: Sir Gawayne, a Collection of Ancient Romance Poems (edited by Sir F. Madden; London, 1839); Sir Gawayne (re-edited by Richard Morris, E.E.T.S., 1864, 1869; text revised by I. Gollancz, 1893); The Parlement of the Thre Ages, and Hymns to the Virgin and Christ (edited by F. J. Furnivall, E.E.T.S., Wynnere and Wastoure (edited by I. Gollancz: London, 1897); 1867); Political, Religious and Love Poems (edited by F. J. Furnivall, E.E.T.S., 1866, 1903). Metre Clark S. Northup, Study of the Metrical Structure of the Pearl (publications of the Modern Languages Association, xii. 326-340). Phonology.-W. Fick, Zum mittelenglischen Gedicht von der Perle (Kiel, 1885). (I. G.) PEARSALL, ROBERT LUCAS DE (1795-1856), English composer, was born on the 14th of March 1795, at Clifton. Educated for the bar, he practised till 1825, when he left England for Germany and studied composition under Panny of Mainz; with the exception of three comparatively short visits to England, during one of which he made the acquaintance of the English school of madrigals, he lived abroad, selling his family property of Willsbridge and settling in the castle of Wartensee, on the lake of Constance. He produced many works of lasting beauty, nearly all of them for voices in combination: from his part songs, such as "Oh, who will o'er the downs?" to his elaborate and scholarly madrigals, such as the admirable eight-part compositions, "Great God of Love" and "Lay a Garland," or the beautiful "Light of my Soul." His reception into the Roman Church in his later years may have suggested the composition of some beautiful sacred music, among other things a fine "Salve Regina." He wrote many valuable treatises on music, and edited a Roman Catholic hymn-book. He died on the 5th of August 1856. PEARSON, CHARLES HENRY (1830-1894), British historian and colonial statesman, was born in London on the 7th of September 1830. After receiving his early education at Rugby and King's College, London, he went up to Oxford, where he Hales of Eton, with an interesting memoir. Soon after the Restoration he was presented by Juxon, bishop of London, to the rectory of St Christopher-le-Stocks; and in 1660 he was created doctor of divinity at Cambridge, appointed a royal chaplain, prebendary of Ely, archdeacon of Surrey, and master of Jesus College, Cambridge. In 1661 he was appointed Lady Margaret professor of divinity; and on the first day of the ensuing year he was nominated one of the commissioners for the review of the liturgy in the conference held at the Savoy. There he won the esteem of his opponents and high praise from Richard Baxter. On the 14th of April 1662 he was made master of Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1667 he was admitted a fellow of the Royal Society. In 1672 he published at Cambridge Vindiciae epistolarum S. Ignatii, in 4to, in answer to Jean Daillé. His defence of the authenticity of the letters of Ignatius has been confirmed by J. B. Lightfoot and other recent scholars. Upon the death of John Wilkins in 1672, Pearson was appointed to the bishopric of Chester. In 1682 his Annales cyprianici were published at Oxford, with John Fell's edition of that father's works. He died at Chester on the 16th of July 1686. His last work, the Two Dissertations on the Succession and Times of the First Bishops of Rome, formed with the Annales Paulini the principal part of his Opera posthuma, edited by Henry Dodwell in 1688. was generally regarded as the most brilliant of an exceptionally | published the Golden Remains of the ever-memorable Mr John able set, and in 1854 obtained a fellowship at Oriel College. His constitutional weakness and bad eyesight forced him to abandon medicine, which he had adopted as a career, and in 1855 he returned to King's College as lecturer in English language and literature, a post which he almost immediately quitted for the professorship of modern history. He made numerous journeys abroad, the most important being his visit to Russia in 1858, his account of which was published anonymously in 1859 under the title of Russia, by a Recent Traveller; an adventurous journey through Poland during the insurrection of 1863, of which he gave a sympathetic and much praised account in the Spectator; and a visit to the United States in 1868, where he gathered materials for his subsequent discussion of the negro | problem in his National Life and Character. In the meantime, besides contributing regularly, first to the Saturday Review and then to the Spectator, and editing the National Review, he wrote the first volume of The Early and Middle Ages of England (1861). The work was bitterly attacked by Freeman, whose extravagant Saxonism" Pearson had been unable to adopt. It appeared in 1868 in a revised form with the title of History of England during the Early and Middle Ages, accompanied by a second volume which met with general recognition. Still better was the reception of his admirable Maps of England in the First Thirteen Centuries (1870). But as the result of these labours he was threatened with total blindness; and, disappointed of receiving a professorship at Oxford, in 1871 he emigrated to Australia. Here he married and settled down to the life of a sheep-farmer; but finding his health and eyesight greatly improved, he came to Melbourne as lecturer on history at the university. Soon afterwards he became head master of the Presbyterian Ladies' College, and in this position practically organized the whole system of higher education for women in Victoria. On his election in 1878 to the Legislative Assembly he definitely adopted politics as his career. His views on the land question and secular education aroused the bitter hostility of the rich squatters and the clergy; but his singular nobility of character, no less than his powers of mind, made him one of the most influential men in the Assembly. He was minister without portfolio in the Berry cabinet (1880-1881), and as minister of education in the coalition government of 1886 to 1890 he was able to pass into law many of the recommendations of his report. His reforms entirely remodelled state education in Victoria. In 1892 a fresh attack of illness decided him to return to England. Here he published in 1893 the best known of his works, National Life and Character. It is an attempt to show that the white man can flourish only in the temperate zones, that the yellow and black races must increase out of all proportion to the white, and must in time crush out his civilization. He died in London on the 29th of May 1894. A volume of his Reviews and Critical Essays was published in 1896, and was followed in 1900 by his autobiography, a work of great interest. PEARSON, JOHN (1612-1686), English divine and scholar, was born at Great Snoring, Norfolk, on the 28th of February 1612. From Eton he passed to Queen's College, Cambridge, and was elected a scholar of King's in April 1632, and a fellow in 1634. On taking orders in 1639 he was collated to the Salisbury prebend of Nether-Avon. In 1640 he was appointed chaplain to the lord-keeper Finch, by whom he was presented to the living of Thorington in Suffolk. In the Civil War he acted as chaplain to George Goring's forces in the west. In 1654 he was made weekly preacher at St Clement's, Eastcheap, in London. With Peter Gunning he disputed against two Roman Catholics on the subject of schism, a one-sided account of which was printed in Paris by one of the Roman Catholic disputants, under the title Scisme Unmask't (1658). Pearson also argued against the Puritan party, and was much interested in Brian Walton's polyglot Bible. In 1659 he published in London his celebrated Exposition of the Creed, dedicated to his parishioners of St Clement's, Eastcheap, to whom the substance of the work had been preached several years before. In the same year he See the memoir in Biographia Britannica, and another by Edward Churton, prefixed to the edition of Pearson's Minor Theological Works (2 vols., Oxford, 1844). Churton also edited almost the whole of the theological writings. PEARSON, JOHN LOUGHBOROUGH (1817-1897), English architect, son of William Pearson, etcher, of Durham, was born in Brussels on the 5th of July 1817. He was articled at the age of fourteen to Ignatius Bonomi, architect, of Durham, but soon removed to London, and worked under the elder Hardwicke. He revived and practised largely the art of vaulting, and acquired in it a proficiency unrivalled in his generation. He was, however, by no means a Gothic purist, and was also fond of Renaissance and thoroughly grounded in classical architecture. From the erection of his first church of Ellerker, in Yorkshire, in 1843, to that of St Peter's, Vauxhall, in 1864, his buildings are Geometrical in manner and exhibit a close adherence to precedent, but elegance of proportion and refinement of detail lift them out of the commonplace of mere imitation. Holy Trinity, Westminster (1848), and St Mary's, Dalton Holme (1858), are notable examples of this phase. St Peter's, Vauxhall (1864), his first groined church, was also the first of a series of buildings which brought Pearson to the forefront among his contemporaries. In these he applied the Early English style to modern needs and modern economy with unrivalled success. St Augustine's, Kilburn (1871), St John's, Red Lion Square, London (1874), St Alban's, Birmingham (1880), St Michael's, Croydon (1880), St John's, Norwood (1881), St Stephen's, Bournemouth (1889), and All Saints', Hove (1889), are characteristic examples of his matured work. He is best known by Truro Cathedral (1880), which has a special interest in its apt incorporation of the south aisle of the ancient church. Pearson's conservative spirit fitted him for the reparation of ancient edifices, and among cathedrals and other historical buildings placed under his care were Lincoln, Chichester, Peterborough, Bristol and Exeter Cathedrals, St George's Chapel, Windsor, Westminster Hall and Westminster Abbey, in the surveyorship of which last he succeeded Sir G. G. Scott. Except as to the porches, the work of Scott, he re-faced the north transept of Westminster Abbey, and also designed the vigorous organ cases. In his handling of ancient buildings he was repeatedly opposed by the ultra anti-restorers (as in the case of the west front of Peterborough Cathedral in 1896), but he generally proved the soundness of his judgment by his executed work. Pearson's practice was not confined to church building. Treberfydd House (1850), Quar Wood (1858), Lechlade Manor, an Elizabethan house (1873), Westwood House, Sydenham, in the French Renaissance style (1880), the Astor estate offices (1892) upon the Victoria Embankment, London, the remodelling of the interiors of Clieveden House (1893) and No. 18 Carlton House Terrace (1894), with many parsonages, show his aptitude for domestic architecture. In general design he first aimed at form, embracing both proportion and contour; and his work may be recognized by accurate scholarship coupled with harmonious detail. Its keynotes are cautiousness and refinement rather than boldness. He died on the 11th of December 1897, and was buried in the nave of Westminster Abbey, where his grave is marked by the appropriate motto Sustinuit et abstinuit. He was elected A.R.A. in 1874, R.A. in 1880, was a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, and a fellow and member of the Council of the Royal Institute | of British Architects. 66 on another expedition to the Arctic regions. In this and sub- The following are some of Pearson's more important works, not already named: Ferriby church (1846); Stow, Lincolnshire (restoration, 1850); Weybridge, St James's (1853); Freeland church, parsonage and schools (1866); Kilburn, St Peter's Home (1868); Wentworth church (1872); Horsforth church (1874); Cullercoats, St George's (1882); Chiswick, St Michael's (restoration, 1882); Great Yarmouth church (restoration, 1883); Liverpool, St Agnes' (1883); Woking Convalescent Home (1884); Headingley church (1884); Torquay, All Saints (1884); Maidstone, All Saints (restoration, 1885); Shrewsbury Abbey (1886); Ayr, Holy Trinity (1886); Hythe church (restoration, 1887); Oxford, New College, reredos (completion, 1889); Cambridge University Library (additions, 1889); Friern Barnet, St John's (1890); Cambridge, Sidney Sussex College (additions, 1890); Middlesex Hospital chapel (1890); Bishopsgate, St Helen's (restoration, 1891); Maida Hill (Irvingite) church (1891); Barking, All Hallows (restoration, 1893); Cambridge, Emmanuel College (additions, 1893); Ledbury, St Michael's (restoration, 1894); Malta, Memorial church (1894); Port Talbot church (1895). (W. D. C.) PEARY, ROBERT EDWIN (1856- ), American Arctic explorer, was born at Cresson, Pennsylvania, on the 6th of May 1856. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1877, and in 1881 became a civil engineer in the U.S. navy with the rank of lieutenant. In 1884 he was appointed assistant-engineer in connexion with the surveys for the Nicaragua Ship Canal, and in 1887-1888 he was in charge of these surveys. In 1886 he obtained leave of absence for a summer excursion to Disco Bay on the west coast of Greenland. From this point he made a journey of nearly a hundred miles into the interior, and the experience impressed him with the practicability of using this so-called inland ice-cap as a highway for exploration. In 1891 he organized an expedition under the auspices of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. The party of seven included Lieut. Peary's wife, the first white woman to accompany an Arctic expedition. After wintering in Inglefield Gulf on the north-six started with him, and moved in sections, one in front of west coast of Greenland, in the following spring Lieut. Peary, with a young Norwegian, Eivind Astrup, crossed the inland ice-cap along its northern limit to the north-east of Greenland and back. The practical geographical result of this journey was to establish the insularity of Greenland. Valuable work was also performed by the expedition in the close study which was made of the isolated tribe of the Cape York or Smith Sound Eskimos, the most northerly people in the world.1 Lieut. Peary was able to fit out another Arctic expedition in 1893, and was again accompanied by Mrs Peary, who gave birth to a daughter at the winter quarters in Inglefield Gulf. The expedition returned in the season of 1894, leaving Peary with his coloured servant Henson and Mr Hugh G. Lee to renew the attempt to cross the inland ice in the next year. This they succeeded in doing, but without being able to carry the work of exploration any farther on the opposite side of Greenland. During a summer excursion to Melville Bay in 1894, Peary discovered three large meteorites, which supplied the Eskimos with the material for their iron implements, as reported by Sir John Ross in 1818, and on his return in 1895 he brought the two smaller ones with him. The remaining meteorite was brought to New York in 1897. In 1898 Lieut. Peary published Northward over the Great Ice, a record of all his expeditions up to that time, and in the same year he started 1 A narrative of the expedition written by Mrs Peary, and containing an account of the "Great White Journey across Greenland," by her husband, was published under the title of My Arctic Journal. another. They were gradually sent back as supplies diminished. At the end of the month Captain Bartlett was the only white man left with Peary, and he turned back in 87° 48′ N., the highest latitude then ever reached. Peary, with his negro servant and four Eskimos, pushed on, and on the 6th of April 1909 reached the North Pole. They remained some thirty hours, took observations, and on sounding, a few miles from the pole, found no bottom at 1500 fathoms. The party, with the exception of one drowned, returned safely to the Roosevelt," which left her winter quarters on the 18th of July and reached Indian Harbour on the 5th of September. Peary's The North Pole: Its Discovery in 1909 was published in 1910. Just before the news came of Peary's success another American explorer, Dr F. A. Cook (b. 1865), returning from Greenland to Europe on a Danish ship, claimed that he had reached the North Pole on the 21st of April 1908. He had accompanied an expedition northward in 1907, prepared to attempt to reach the Pole if opportunity offered, and according to his own story had done so, leaving his party and taking only some Eskimos, early in 1908. Nothing had been heard of him since March of that year, and it was supposed that he had perished. Cook's claim to have forestalled Peary was at first credited in various circles, and he was given a rapturous reception at Copenhagen; but scientific opinion in England and America was more reserved, and eventually, after a prolonged dispute, a special committee of the university of Copenhagen, to whom his documents were submitted, declared that they contained no proof that he had reached the Pole. By that time most other people had come to an adverse conclusion and the sensation was over. 66 | remains, to a compact dark brown material, resembling black clay when wet, and some varieties of lignite when dry. Two typical forms may be noticed: "Hill peat" (the mountain or PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, brown bogs of Ireland), found in mountainous districts, and belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan "), a countryman consisting mainly of Sphagnum and Andromeda; and " Bottom or rustic, either working for others, or, more specifically, owning peat (the lowland or red bogs of Ireland), found in lakes, or renting and working by his own labour a small plot of ground. | rivers, and brooks, and containing Hypnum. It always contains Though a word of not very strict application, it is now frequently much water, up to 90%, which it is necessary to remove before used of the rural population of such countries as France, where the product can be efficiently employed as a fuel, and for most the land is chiefly held by small holders, " peasant proprietors." | other purposes. A specimen dried at 100° C. had the composi(See ALLOTMENTS and METAYAGE). tion: carbon=60.48%, hydrogen = 6.10%, oxygen = 32.55%, nitrogen=0.88%, ash=3.30%; the ash is very variable-from I to 65%-and consists principally of clay and sand, with lesser amounts of ferric oxide, lime, magnesia, &c. The specific gravity has been variously given, owing to the variable water content and air spaces; when dried and compressed, however, it is denser than water. PEASE, EDWARD (1767-1858), the founder of a famous industrial Quaker family in the north of England, was born at Darlington on the 31st of May 1767, his father, Joseph Pease (1737-1808), being a woollen manufacturer in that town. Having retired from this business Edward Pease made the acquaintance of George Stephenson, and with him took a prominent part in constructing the railway between Stockton and Darlington. He died at Darlington on the 31st of July 1858. His second son, Joseph Pease (1799-1872), who assisted his father in his railway enterprises, was M.P. for South Durham from 1832 to 1841, being the first Quaker to sit in parliament. He was interested in collieries, quarries and ironstone mines in Durham and North Yorkshire, as well as in cotton and woollen manufactures; and he was active in educational and philanthropic work. Another son, Henry Pease (1807-1881), was M.P. for South Durham from 1857 to 1865. Like all the members of his family he was a supporter of the Peace Society, and in its interests he visited the emperor Nicholas of Russia just before the outbreak of the Crimean War, and later the emperor of the French, Napoleon III. Joseph Pease's eldest son, Sir Joseph Whitwell Pease (18281903), was made a baronet in 1882. He was M.P. for South Durham from 1865 to 1885 and for the Barnard Castle division of Durham from 1885 to 1903. His elder son, Sir Alfred Edward Pease (b. 1857), who succeeded to the baronetcy, became famous as a hunter of big game, and was M.P. for York from 1885 to 1892 and for the Cleveland division of Yorkshire from 1897 to 1902. A younger son, Joseph Albert Pease (b. 1860), entered parliament in 1892, and in 1908 became chief Liberal whip, being advanced to the cabinet as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster in 1910. Another son of Joseph Pease was Arthur Pease (1837-1898), member of parliament from 1880 to 1885 and again from 1895 to 1898. His son, Herbert Pike Pease (b. 1867), M.P. for Darlington 1898-1910, was one of the Unionist Whips. The Diaries of Edward Pease were edited by Sir Alfred Pease in 1907. Peat-winning presents certain special features. The general practice is to cut a trench about a foot deep with a peculiarly shaped spade, termed in Ireland a slane," and remove sods from 3 to 4 ft. long. When one layer has been removed, the next is attacked, and so on. If the deposit be more solid stepworking may be adopted, and should water be reached recourse may be had to long-handled slanes. The sods are allowed to drain, and then stacked for drying in the air, being occasionally turned so as to dry equally; this process may require about six weeks. The dried sods are known as " dug peat.' Excavators and dredges are now extensively used, and the drying is effected in heated chambers, both fixed and revolving. The The low value of ordinary dug peat as a fuel has led to processes for obtaining a more useful product. In M. Ekenberg's process composition, and the pulp passed into an oven maintained at the wet peat is pulped and milled so as to make it of uniform 180°-200° F., where it is carbonized by superheated water. pressed product, which resembles lignite, still contains 8 to 14% of water; this is driven off by heat, and the residue briquetted. The final product is nearly equal to coal in calorific value, and has the additional advantage of a lower sulphur content-0.2 to 0.4 % against about 2% in ordinary coal. M. Zeigler's method leads to the production of a useful coke. Both these processes permit the recovery of valuable by-products, especially ammonium sulphate. engines have been followed by commercial processes devised by the Experiments for obtaining a gas suitable for consumption in gasMond Gas Corporation, London, and Crossley Bros. of Manchester, and by Caro and Frank in Germany. The processes essentially consist in destructively distilling peat in special retorts and under specified conditions, and, in addition to the gas, there is recovered a useful coke and also the nitrogen as ammonium sulphate. The conversion of the nitrogen into ammonia has been the subject of much work, and is commercially pursued at a works at Carnlough, Co. Antrim, under patents held by H. C. Woltereck. The peat is treated with a mixture of air and water vapour in special furnaces, and the gaseous products, including paraffin tar, acetic acid and ammonia, are led through a special scrubber to remove the tar, then through a tower containing milk of lime to absorb the acid (the calcium acetate formed being employed for the manufacture of acetone, &c.), and finally through a sulphuric acid tower, where the ammonia is converted into ammonium sulphate which is recovered by crystallization. PEAT (possibly connected with Med. Lat. petia, pecia, piece, ultimately of Celtic origin; cf. O. Celt. pet, O. Ir. pit, Welsh peth, portion), a product of decayed vegetation found in the form of bogs in many parts of the world. The continent of Europe is estimated to contain 212,700 sq. m. of bog; Ireland has 2,858,150 acres, Canada 30,000,000 acres, and the United States 20,000,000 Peat has also been exploited as a source of commercial alcohol, acres. The plants which give origin to these deposits are mainly to be employed in motors. In the process founded on the experiaquatic, including reeds, rushes, sedges and mosses. Sphagnum ments of R. W. Wallace and Sir W, Ramsay, which gives 25 to 26 is present in most peats, but in Irish peat Thacomitrum lanugino-gallons of spirit from a ton of peat, the peat is boiled with water containing a little sulphuric acid, the product neutralized with sum predominates. It seems that the disintegration of the lime and then distilled; the ammonia is also recovered. In another vegetable tissues is effected partly by moist atmospheric oxida- process a yield of 40 gallons of spirit and 66 lb of ammonium tion and partly by anaerobic bacteria, yeasts, moulds and fungi, sulphate per ton of peat is claimed. in depressions containing fairly still but not stagnant water, which is retained by an impervious bed or underlying strata. As decomposition proceeds the products become waterlogged and sink to the bottom of the pool; in the course of time the deposits attain a considerable thickness, and the lower layers, under the superincumbent pressure of the water and later deposits, are gradually compressed and carbonized. The most favourable conditions appear to be a moist atmosphere, and a mean annual temperature of about 45° F.; no bogs are found between latitudes 45° N. and 45° S. Peat varies from a pale yellow or brown fibrous substance, resembling turf or compressed hay, containing conspicuous plant Of other applications we may notice C. E. Nelson's process for making a paper, said to be better than ordinary wrapping; the first factory to exploit this idea was opened at Capac, Michigan, in 1906. Peat has been employed as a manure for many years, and recently attempts have been made to convert artificially its nitrogen into and A. G. Girard of Paris, in 1907. assimilable nitrates; such a process was patented by A. Müntz See P. R. Björling and F. T. Gissing, Peat and its Manufacture (1907); F. T. Gissing, Commercial Peat (1909); E. Nystrom, Peat and Lignite (1908), published by Department of Mines of Canada. PÉCAUT, FELIX (1828-1898), French educationalist, a member of an old Huguenot family, was born at Salies de Béarn, in 1828. He was for some months evangelical pastor at Salies, but he had no pretence of sympathy with ecclesiastical authority |