Parry's

Second

| and succeeded in reaching the east coast of Greenland, where observations were taken on Pendulum Island. He charted the coast-line from 76° to 72° N.

In Parry's attempt to reach the pole from the northern coast of Spitsbergen by means of sledge-boats (see PARRY), the highest latitude reached was 82° 45′ N., and the attempt was persevered in until it was found that the ice as a whole was drifting to the south more rapidly than it was possible to travel over it to the north.

Graah.

In 1829 the Danes undertook an interesting piece of exploration on the east coast of Greenland. Captain Graah of the Danish navy rounded Cape Farewell in boats, with four Europeans and twelve Eskimo. He advanced as far as 65° 18′ N. on the east coast, where he was stopped by an insurmountable barrier of ice. He wintered in 63° 22′ N., and returned to the settlements on the west side of Greenland in 1830.

66

Edward Parry, followed in the wake of Baffin's voyage of 1616. Ross sailed from England in April 1818. The chief merit of his voyage was that it vindicated Baffin's accuracy as a discoverer. Its practical result was that the way was shown to a lucrative fishery in the "North Water" of Baffin Bay, which continued to be frequented by a fleet of whalers every year. Captain Ross thought that the inlets reported by Baffin were merely bays, while the opinion of his second in command was that a wide opening to the westward existed through the Lancaster Sound of Baffin. Parry was selected to command a new expedition in the following year. His two vessels, the "Hecla " and "Griper, passed through Lancaster Sound,. the continuation First and of which was named Barrow Strait, and advanced westward, with an archipelago on the right, since Voyages. known as the Parry Islands. He observed a wide opening to the north, which he named Wellington Channel, and sailed onwards for 300 m. to Melville Island. He was stopped by the impenetrable polar pack of vast thickness which surrounds In the year 1829 Captain John Ross, with his nephew James the archipelago to the north of the American continent, and was Clark Ross, having been furnished with funds by a wealthy obliged to winter in a harbour on the south coast of Melville distiller named Felix Booth, undertook a private, The Rosses. Island. Parry's hygienic arrangements during the winter were expedition of discovery in a small vessel called the' judicious, and the scientific results of his expedition were valu- Victory. Ross proceeded down Prince Regent Inlet to the able. The vessels returned in October 1820; and a fresh ex- Gulf of Boothia, and wintered on the eastern side of a land named pedition in the "Fury" and " Hecla," again under the command by him Boothia Felix. In the course of exploring excursions of Captain Parry, sailed from the Nore on the 8th of May 1821, during the summer months James Ross crossed the land and and passed their first winter on the coast of the newly discovered discovered the position of the north magnetic pole on the western Melville Peninsula in 66° 11′ N. Still persevering, Parry passed side of it, on the 1st of June 1831. He also discovered a land to his second winter among the Eskimo at Igloolik in 69° 20′ N., the westward of Boothia which he named King William Land, and and discovered a channel leading westward from the head of the northern shore of which he examined. The most northern Hudson Bay, which he named Fury and Hecla Strait. The point was called Cape Felix, and thence the coast trended southexpedition returned in the autumn of 1823. Meantime Parry's west to Victory Point. The Rosses could not get their little Franklin's friend Franklin had been employed in attempts to vessel out of its winter quarters. They passed three winters First reach by land the northern shores of America, there, and then fell back on the stores at Fury Beach, where they hitherto only touched at two points by Hearne and passed their fourth winter, 1832-1833. Eventually they were Mackenzie. Franklin went out in 1819, with Dr John Richard-picked up by a whaler in Barrow Strait, and brought home. son, George Back and Robert Hood. They landed at York Great anxiety was naturally felt at their prolonged absence, and factory, and proceeded to the Great Slave Lake. In August of in 1833 Sir George Back, with Dr Richard King as a the following year they started for the Coppermine river, and, companion, set out by land in search of the missing embarking on it, reached its mouth on the 18th of July 1821. explorers. Wintering at the Great Slave Lake, they left Fort From that point 550 m. of coast-line were explored, the Reliance on the 7th of June 1834, and descended the Great Fish extreme point being called Cape Turnagain. Great sufferings, river for 530 m. The mouth was reached in 67° 11′ N., and then from starvation and cold, had to be endured during the return the want of supplies obliged them to return. In 1836 Sir George journey; but eventually Franklin, Richardson and Back arrived Back was sent, at the suggestion of the Royal Geographical safely at Fort Chippewyan. Society, to proceed to Repulse Bay in his ship, the "Terror, and then to cross an assumed isthmus and examine the coastline thence to the mouth of the Great Fish river; but the ship was obliged to winter in the drifting pack, and was brought home in a sinking condition.

Journey.

Parry's
Third
Voyage.

It was thought desirable that an attempt should be made to connect the Cape Turnagain of Franklin with the discoveries made by Parry during his second voyage; but the first effort, under Captain Lyon in the "Griper," was unsuccessful. In 1824 three combined attempts were organized. While Parry again entered by Lancaster Sound and pushed down a great opening he had seen to the south named Prince Regent Inlet, Captain Beechey was to enter Bering Strait, and Franklin was to make a second journey by land to the shores of Arctic America. Parry was unfortunate, but Beechey entered Bering Strait in the "Blossom " in August 1826, and extended our knowledge as far as Point Barrow Franklin's in 71° 23′ 30′′ N. lat. Franklin, in 1825-1826, descended the Mackenzie river to its mouth, and exJourney. plored the coast for 374 m. to the westward; while Dr Richardson discovered the shore between the mouths of the Mackenzie and Coppermine, and sighted land to the northward, named by him Wollaston Land, the dividing channel being called Union and Dolphin Strait. They returned in the autumn of 1826.

Second

Back.

Simpson

The tracing of the polar shores of America was completed by the Hudson's Bay Company's servants. In June 1837 Thomas Simpson and P. W. Dease left Chippewyan, reached the mouth of the Mackenzie, and connected that position and Dease. with Point Barrow, which had been discovered by the "Blossom " in 1826. In 1839 Simpson passed Cape Turnagain of Franklin, tracing the coast eastward so as to connect with Back's work at the mouth of the Great Fish river. He landed at Montreal Island in the mouth of that river, and then advanced eastward as far as Castor and Pollux river, his farthest eastern point. On his return he travelled along the north side of the channel, the south shore of the King William Island discovered by James Ross. The southwestern point of this island was named Cape Herschel, and there Simpson built a cairn on the 26th of August 1839. Little remained to do in order to complete the delineation of the northern shores of the American continent, and this task was entrusted to Dr John Rae, a Hudson's Bay factor, in 1846. He went in boats to Repulse Bay, where he wintered in a stone hut nearly on the Arctic Circle; and there he and his six Orkney men maintained themselves on the deer they shot. During the spring of 1847 Dr Rae explored on foot the shores of a great gulf having 700 m. of coast-line. He thus connected the work of Parry, at the mouth of Fury and Hecla

Rae.

Strait, with the work of Ross on the coast of Boothia, proving | an admirable organizer. His arrangements for passing the that Boothia was part of the American continent.

While British explorers were thus working hard to solve some of the geographical problems relating to Arctic America, the Russians were similarly engaged in Siberia. In 1821 Anjou. Lieut. P. F. Anjou made a complete survey of the New Siberia Islands, and came to the conclusion that it was not possible to advance far from them in a northerly direction, owing to the thinness of the ice and to open water Wrangell. existing within 20 or 30 m. Baron Wrangell prosecuted similar investigations from the mouth of the Kolyma between 1820 and 1823. He made four journeys with dog sledges, exploring the coast between Cape Chelagskoi and the Kolyma, and making attempts to extend his journeys to some distance from the land, but he was always stopped by thin ice. In 1843 Middendorf was sent to explore the region which terminates in Cape Chelyuskin. He reached Taimyr Bay in the height of the short summer, whence he saw open water and no ice blink in any direction. The whole arctic shore of Siberia had now been explored and delineated, but no vessel had yet rounded the extreme northern point.

Middendorf.

The success of Sir James Ross's Antarctic expedition and the completion of the northern coast-line of America by the Hudson's Bay Company's servants gave rise in 1845 to a fresh Franklin attempt to make the passage from Lancaster Sound Expedition. to Bering Strait. The story of the unhappy expedition of Sir John Franklin, in the " Erebus "and" Terror," is told under FRANKLIN; but some geographical details may be given here. The heavy polar ice flows south-east between Melville and Baring Islands, down M'Clintock Channel, and impinges on the north-west coast of King William Land. It was this branch from the " palaeocrystic " sea which finally stopped the progress of Franklin's expedition. On leaving the winter quarters at Beechey Island in 1846 Franklin found a channel leading south, along the western shore of the land of North Somerset discovered by Parry in 1819. If he could reach the channel on the American coast, he knew that he would be able to make his way along it to Bering Strait. This channel, now called Peel Sound, pointed directly to the south. He sailed down it towards King William Island, with land on both sides. But directly the southern point of the western land was passed and no longer shielded the channel, the great ice stream from Melville Island, pressing on King William Island, was encountered and found impassable. Progress might have been made by rounding the eastern side of King William Island, but its insularity was then unknown.

winter were carefully thought out and answered perfectly. In concert with Penny he planned a thorough and extensive system of search by means of sledge-travelling in the spring, and Lieut. M'Clintock superintended every detail of this part of the work with unfailing forethought and skill. Penny undertook the search by Wellington Channel. M'Clintock advanced to Melville Island, marching over 770 m. in eighty-one days; Captain Ommanney and Sherard Osborn pressed southward and discovered Prince of Wales Island. Lieut. Brown examined the western shore of Peel Sound. The search was exhaustive; but, except the winter quarters at Beechey Island, no record was discovered. The absence of any record made Captain Austin doubt whether Franklin had ever gone beyond Beechey Island; so he also examined the entrance of Jones Sound, the next inlet from Baffin Bay north of Lancaster Sound, on his way home, and returned to England in the autumn of 1851. This was a thoroughly well conducted expedition, especially as regards the sledge-travelling, which M'Clintock brought to great perfection. So far as the search for Franklin was concerned, nothing remained to be done west or north of Barrow Strait.

Bellot.

In 1851 the" Prince Albert " schooner was sent out by Lady Franklin, under Captain Wm. Kennedy, with Lieut. Bellot of the French navy as second. They wintered on the east coast of North Somerset, and in the spring of Kennedy; 1852 the gallant Frenchman, in the course of a long sledging journey, discovered Bellot Strait, separating North Somerset from Boothia-thus proving that the Boothia coast facing the strait was the northern extremity of the continent of America.

Collinson.

The "Enterprise " and " Investigator" sailed from England in January 1850, but accidentally parted company before they reached Bering Strait. On the 6th of May 1851 the Enterprise" passed the strait, and rounded Point Barrow on the 25th. Collinson then made his way up the narrow Prince of Wales Strait, between Banks and Prince Albert Islands, and reached Princess Royal Islands, where M'Clure had been the previous year. Returning southwards, the "Enterprise "wintered in a sound in Prince Albert Island in 71° 35′ N. and 117° 35′ W. Three travelling parties were despatched in the spring of 1852-one to trace Prince Albert Land in a southerly direction, while the others explored Prince of Wales Strait, one of them reaching Melville Island. In September 1852 the ship was free, and Collinson pressed eastward along the coast of North America, reaching Cambridge Bay (Sept. 26), where the second winter was passed. In the spring he examined the It was not until 1848 that anxiety began to be felt about the shores of Victoria Land as far as 70° 26′ N. and 100° 45′ W.: here Franklin expedition. In the spring of that year Sir James Ross he was within a few miles of Point Victory, where the fate of Search was sent with two ships, the " and Franklin would have been ascertained. Enterprise The " Enterprise Expedition; Investigator, by way of Lancaster Sound. He again put to sea on the 5th of August 1853, and returned westRoss. wintered at Leopold Harbour, near the north-east ward along the American coast, until she was stopped by ice and point of North Devon. In the spring he made a long sledge obliged to pass a third winter at Camden Bay, in 70° 8' N. and journey with Lieut. Leopold M'Clintock along the northern and 145° 29′ W. In 1854 this remarkable voyage was completed, and western coasts of North Somerset, but found nothing. Captain Collinson brought the "Enterprise "back to England.

Austin.

On the return of the Ross expedition without any tidings, the country became thoroughly alarmed. An extensive plan of search was organized-the Enterprise" and "Investigator "under Collinson and M'Clure proceeding by Bering Strait, while the Assistance and Resolute,' with two steam tenders, the "Pioneer" and "Intrepid," sailed on the 3rd of May 1850 to renew the search by Barrow Strait, under Captain Horatio Austin. Two brigs, the" Lady Franklin and "Sophia," under William Penny, an energetic and able whaling captain, were sent by the same route. He had with him Dr Sutherland, a naturalist, who did much valuable scientific work. Austin and Penny entered Barrow Strait, and Franklin's winter quarters of 1845-1846 were discovered at Beechey Island; but there was no record of any kind indicating the direction taken by the ships. Stopped by the ice, Austin's expedition wintered (1850-1851) in the pack off Griffith Island, and Penny found refuge in a harbour on the south coast of Cornwallis Island. Austin, who had been with Parry during his third voyage, was

McClure.

Meanwhile M'Clure in the "Investigator" had passed the winter of 1850-1851 at the Princess Royal Islands, only 30 m. from Barrow Strait. In October M'Clure ascended a hill whence he could see the frozen surface of Barrow Strait, which was navigated by Parry in 1819-1820. Thus, like the survivors of Franklin's crews when they reached Cape Herschel, M'Clure discovered a north-west passage. It was impossible to reach it, for the stream of heavily packed ice which stopped Franklin off King William Land lay athwart their northward course; so, as soon as he was free in 1851, M'Clure turned southwards, round the southern extreme of Banks Land, and commenced to force a passage to the northward between the western shore of that land and the enormous fields of ice which pressed upon it. The cliffs rose like walls on one side, while on the other the stupendous ice of the " palaeocrystic sea "rose from the water to a level with the Investigator's" lower yards. After many hairbreadth escapes M'Clure took refuge in a bay on the northern shore of Banks Land, which he named the Bay of

Hall.

Explorers.

The Spitsbergen seas were explored during last century by Norwegian fishermen as well as by Swedish and German expeditions and by British yachtsmen. In 1827 the NorNorwegian wegian geologist Keilhau made an expedition to Bear Island and Spitsbergen which was the first purely scientific Arctic expedition. The Norwegian Spitsbergen fishery dates from 1820, but it was only in the latter part of the century that Professor Mchn of Christiania carefully collected information from the captains who had taken part in the work when at its height. In 1863 Captain Carlsen circumnavigated the Spitsbergen group for the first time in a brig called the " Jan Mayen." In 1864 Captain Tobiesen sailed round North-East Land. In 1872 Captains Altmann and Nils Johnsen visited Wiche's Land, which was discovered by Captain Edge in 1617. In that year there were twenty-three sailing vessels from Tromsö, twenty-four from Hammerfest, and one from Vardö engaged in the Arctic sealing trade, averaging from 35 to 40 tons, and carrying a dozen men. Exploration went on slowly, in the course of the sealing and fishing voyages, the records of which are not very full. In 1869 Carlsen crossed the Kara Sea and reached the mouth of the Ob. | In 1870 there were about sixty Norwegian vessels in the Barents Sea, and Captain Johannesen circumnavigated Novaya Zemlya. In 1873 Captain Tobiesen was unfortunately obliged to winter on the Novaya Zemlya coast, owing to the loss of his schooner, and both he and his young son died in the spring. Two years previously Captain Carlsen had succeeded in reaching the winter quarters of Barents, the first visitor since 1597, an interval of two hundred and seventy-four years. He landed on the 9th of September 1871, and found the house still standing and full of interesting relics, which are now in the naval museum at the Hague.

Payer and

Charles Hall (q.v.), in his first journey (1860-1862), discovered | 1870 Baron von Heuglin with Count Zeil explored the Stor remains of a stone house which Sir Martin Frobisher built on the Fjord in a Norwegian schooner, and also examined Walter Countess of Warwick Island in 1578. In his second Thymen Strait. After the return of the "Germania " in 1868 a expedition (1864-1869) Hall reached the line of the regular expedition was organized under the command of Captain retreat of the Franklin survivors, at Todd's Island and Peffer Koldewey, provisioned for two years. It consisted of the River, on the south coast of King William Island. He heard the "Germania,” a screw steamer of 140 tons, and the brig " Hansa," story of the retreat and of the wreck of one of the ships from the commanded by Captain Hegemann. Lieut. Julius Payer, the Eskimo; he was told that seven bodies were buried at Todd future explorer of Franz Josef Land, gained his first Arctic Island; and he brought home some bones which are believed to experience on board the "Germania." The expedition sailed be those of Lieut. Le Vescomte of the "Erebus." Finally, in from Bremen on the 15th of June 1869, its destination being the 1871 he took the "Polaris" for 250 m. up the channel which east coast of Greenland. But in latitude 70° 46′ N. the " Hansa " leads northwards from Smith Sound. The various parts of this got separated from her consort and crushed in the ice. The crew long channel are called Smith Sound, Kane Basin, Kennedy built a house of patent fuel on the floe, and in this strange abode Channel and Robeson Channel. The "Polaris " was beset in they passed their Christmas. In two months the current carried 82° 11' N. on the 30th of August; her winter quarters were in them 400 m. to the south. By May they had drifted 1100 m. Thank God Harbour, 81° 38′ N., and here Hall died. on their ice-raft, and finally, on the 14th of June 1870, they arrived safely at the Moravian mission station of Friedriksthal, to the west of Cape Farewell. Fairer fortune attended the "Germania." She sailed up the east coast of Greenland as far as 75° 30′ N., and eventually wintered at the Pendulum Islands of Clavering in 74° 30′ N. In March 1870 a travelling party set out under Koldewey and Payer, and reached a distance of 100 m. from the ship to the northward, when want of provisions compelled them to return. A grim cape, named after Prince Bismarck, marked the northern limit of their discoveries. As soon as the vessel was free, a deep branching fjord, named Franz Josef Fjord, was discovered in 73° 15′ N. stretching for a long distance into the interior of Greenland. The expedition returned to Bremen on the 11th of September 1870. Lieut. Payer was resolved to continue in the path of polar discovery. He and the naval officer Weyprecht chartered a Norwegian schooner called the Isbjörn," and examined the edge of the ice between Spitsbergen Weyprecht. and Novaya Zemlya, in the summer of 1871. Their observations led them to select the route by the north end of Novaya Zemlya with a view to making the north-east passage. It was to be an Austro-Hungarian expedition, and the idea was seized with enthusiasm by the whole monarchy. Weyprecht was to command the ship, while Julius Payer conducted the sledge parties. The steamer Tegethoff," of 300 tons, was fitted out in the Elbe, and left Tromsö on the 14th of July 1872. The season was severe, and the vessel was closely beset near Cape Nassau, at the northern end of Novaya Zemlya, in the end of August. The summer of 1873 found her still a close prisoner drifting, not with a current, but chiefly in the direction of the prevailing wind. At length, on the 31st of August, a mountainous country was sighted about 14 m. to the north. In Between 1858 and 1872 the Swedes sent seven expeditions October the vessel was drifted within 3 m. of an island lying to Spitsbergen and two to Greenland, marking a new scientific off the main mass of land. Payer landed on it, and found the Swedish era in Arctic exploration, of which Keilhau had been latitude to be 79° 54′ N. It was named after Count Wilczek, Expeditions, the pioneer. All returned with valuable scientific one of the warmest friends of the expedition. Here the second results. That of 1864 under A. E. Nordenskiöld and winter was passed. Bears were numerous and sixty-seven were Duner made observations at 80 different places on the Spitsbergen killed, their meat proving to be an efficient preventive of scurvy. shores, and fixed the heights of numerous mountains. In 1868, In March 1874 Payer made a preliminary sledge journey in in an iron steamer, the "Sophia," the Swedes attained a latitude | intense cold (thermometer at -58° F.). On the 24th of March of 81° 42′ N. on the meridian of 18° E., during the month of he started for a more prolonged journey of thirty days. Payer September. In 1872 an expedition, consisting of the "Polhem "believed that the newly discovered country equalled Spitssteamer and brig" Gladen," commanded by Professor Norden- bergen in extent, and described it as consisting of two or more 'skiöld and Lieut. Palander, wintered in Mossel Bay on the large masses-Wilczek Land to the east, Zichy Land to the west, northern shore of Spitsbergen. In the spring an important intersected by numerous fjords and skirted by a large number of sledging journey of sixty days' duration was made over North- islands. A wide channel, named Austria Sound, was supposed East Land. The expedition was in some distress as regards to separate the two main masses of land, and extend to 82° N. supplies owing to two vessels, which were to have returned, The whole country was named Franz Josef Land. Payer's having been forced to winter. But in the summer of 1873 they large land-masses have by later discoveries been broken up into were visited by Mr Leigh Smith, in his yacht "Diana," who groups of islands and much of the land he thought he saw towards supplied them with fresh provisions. the east was found by Nansen not to exist. Payer returned to the "Tegethoff" on the 24th of April; and a third journey was undertaken to explore a large island named after M'Clintock. It then became necessary to abandon the ship and attempt a retreat in boats. This perilous voyage was commenced on the 20th of May. Three boats stored with provisions were placed on sledges. It was not until the 14th of August that they reached

Dr A. Petermann of Gotha urged his countrymen to take their share in the work of polar discovery, and at his own risk he fitted out a small vessel called the "Germania," Koldewey. which sailed from Bergen in May 1868, under the command of Captain Koldewey. His cruise extended to Hinlopen Strait in Spitsbergen, but was merely tentative; and in