youth he fought on the side of the Phrygians against the Amazons. He had fifty sons and fifty daughters, and possessed immense wealth. He appears only twice on the scene of action during the war-to make arrangements for the duel between Paris and Menelaus, and to beg the body of Hector for burial from Achilles, whom he visits in his tent by night. He was said to have been slain by Neoptolemus, son of Achilles, during the sack of Troy (Virgil, Aeneid, ii. 512). See under TROY, on the legends. PRIAPEIA, a collection of poems (about eighty in number) in various metres on the subject of Priapus. It was compiled from literary works and inscriptions on images of the god by an unknown editor, who composed the introductory epigram. From their style and versification it is evident that the poems belong to the best period of Latin literature. Some, however, may be interpolations of a later period. They will be found in F. Bücheler's Petronius (1904), L. Müller's Catullus (1870), and E. Bährens, Poetae latini minores, i. (1879).

PRIAPULOIDEA, a small group of vermiform marine creatures; they have been usually placed in the neighbourhood of the Gephyrea, but their position is uncertain and it is doubtful if they are to be regarded as coelomate animals. They are cylindrical worm-like animals, with a median anterior mouth quite devoid of any armature or tentacles. The body is ringed, and often has circles of spines, which are continued into the slightly protrusible pharynx. The alimentary canal is straight, the anus terminal, though in Priapulus one or two hollow ventral diverticula of the body-wall stretch out behind it. The nervous system, composed of a ring and a ventral cord, retains its primitive connexion with the ectoderm. There are no specialized sense-organs or vascular or respiratory systems. There is a wide body-cavity, but as this has no connexion with the renal or reproductive organs it cannot be regarded as a coelom, but probably is a blood-space or haemocoel.

The Priapuloidea are dioecious, and their male and female organs, which are one with the excretory organs, consist of a pair of branching tufts, each of which opens to the exterior on one side of the anus. The tips of these, tufts enclose a flamecell similar to those found in Platyhelminths, &c., and these probably function ykonions as excretory organs. As the animals 2 become adult, diverticula arise. on the most tubes of these organs, which develop either spermatozoa or ova. These pass out through the ducts. Nothing is known of the development. There are Priapulus caudatus three genera: (i.) Priapulus, with the Lam. (Nat. size.) a, species P. caudatus, Lam., of the Arctic Mouth, surrounded by spines. and Antarctic and neighbouring cold seas, and P. bicaudatus, Dan., of the north Atlantic and Arctic seas; (ii.) Priapuloides australis, de Guerne, of the southern circumpolar waters; and (iii.) Halicryptus, with the species H. spinulosus, v. Sieb., of northern seas. They live in the mud, which they eat, in comparatively shallow waters up to 50 fathoms. AUTHORITIES.-Apel, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. (1885), vol xlii.; Scharff, Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. (1885), vol. xxv.; Ehlers. Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. (1861), vol. xi.; Schauinsland, Zool. Anz. (1886), vol. ix.; De Guerne, Mission scientifique du Cap Horn (1891), vol vi.; Michaelsen, Jahrb. Hamburg-Aust. (1888), vol. vi. (A. E. S.)

PRIAPUS, in Greek mythology, son of Dionysus (or Adonis or Hermes) and Aphrodite (or Chione). He is unknown to Homer and Hesiod. The chief seat of his worship was the coast of the Hellespont, especially at Lampsacus, which claimed to be his birthplace. Thence his cult extended to Lydia, and by way of the islands of Lesbos and Thasos to the whole of Greece (especially Argolis), whence it made its way to Italy, together with that of Aphrodite. Priapus is the personification of the fruit

A

fulness of nature. Sailors invoked him in distress and fishermen prayed to him for success. He gradually came to be regarded as the god of sensuality. His symbol was the phallus, an emblem of productivity and a protection against the evil eye. The first fruits of the gardens and fields, goats, milk and honey, and occasionally asses, were offered to him. He was sometimes represented as an old man, with a long beard and large genitals, wearing a long Oriental robe and a turban or garland of vineleaves, with fruit and bunches of grapes in his lap. Amongst the Romans, rough wooden images, after the manner of the hermae, with phallus stained with vermilion, were set up in gardens. His image was placed on tombs, as symbolizing the doctrine of regeneration and a future life, and his name occurs on sepulchral inscriptions. In his hand he carried a bill-hook or club, while a reed on his head, shaking backwards and forwards in the wind, acted as a scarecrow.

PRIBILOF ISLANDS (often called the Fur Seal Islands, Russian equivalent, "Kotovi "), a group of four islands, part of Alaska, lying in Bering Sea in about 56° 50' N. and 170° W., about 200 m. N. of Unalaska and 200 m. S. of Cape Newenham, the nearest point on the mainland. The principal islands are St Paul (about 35 sq. m.; 13 m. long, from N.E. to S.W.; maximum width about 6 m.; named from St Peter and St Paul's Day, on which it was discovered) and St George (about 27 sq.m.; 10 m. long, maximum width, 4 m.; probably named after Pribilof's ship) about 30 m. S.E.; Otter and Walrus islets, the former covering about 4 sq. m., and the latter merely a reef covering about 64 acres, are near St Paul. In 1907 the native population was 263-170 on St Paul and 93 on St George. Only agents of the United States or employés of the lessees are permitted as residents on the islands. The islands are hilly and volcanic-Bogoslof, a crater on St Paul, is 600 ft. high-without harbours, and have a mean annual temperature of about 35.7° F., and a rainfall of about 35 in. There are only two seasonsrainy summers lasting from May to October, and dry winters from November to April. The flora is restricted to ferns, mosses and grasses, though there are some creeping willows and small shrubs. The largest seal rookery, containing about 80 % of the seals in the Pribilofs, is on St Paul. The seals found here are a distinct variety (Callorhinus alascanus) with much better fur than that of any other variety. Besides the fur seal there are blue and grey foxes (more on St George than on St Paul), and on St George Island and on the Walrus reef there are great bird rookeries-the breeding places of immense numbers of gulls, sea-parrots, auks, cormorants and arries (Lomvia arra).

The islands were first sighted in 1767 by Joan Synd, and were visited in 1786 by Gerasim Pribiloff, who discovered the fur seal rookeries for which they became famous. From Russia the islands passed with Alaska to the United States in 1867. From 1870 to 1890 the United States government leased the islands to the Alaska Commercial Company. In 1890-1910 the North American Commercial Company held the monopoly. But the industry shrank considerably owing to pelagic sealing. The season during which land hunting is allowed on the islands includes June, July, September and October. (See also SEAL and BERING SEA ARBITRATION.)

PŘIBRAM, a town of Bohemia, Austria, 39 m. S.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 13,576, together with the adjoining township of Birkenberg, 19,119, almost exclusively Czech. It lies in a valley between the hills of Birkenberg and Heiliger Berg, and in its neighbourhood are the lead and silver mines which belong to the Austrian government and are worked in nine shafts, two of which, the Adalbert shaft (3637 ft.) and the Maria shaft, (3575 ft.) are the deepest in the world. The mines have been worked for several centuries, but their actual prosperity dates from 1770, when the sinking of the Adalbert shaft began. They yield yearly an average of 80,000 lb of silver and 1900 tons of lead. At the top of the Heiliger Berg (1889 ft.) is a church with a wonder-working image of the Virgin, which is the chief place of pilgrimage in Bohemia.

PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818-1898), English mathematician and educationist, was born at Coln St Denis, Gloucestershire,

in 1818. He was educated at Pembroke College, Oxford, of which college (after taking a first class in mathematics in 1840 and gaining the university mathematical scholarship in 1842) he became fellow in 1844 and tutor and mathematical lecturer in 1845. He at once took a leading position in the mathematical teaching of the university, and published treatises on the Differential calculus (in 1848) and the Infinitesimal calculus (4 vols., 1852-1860), which for long were the recognized textbooks there. This latter work included the differential and integral calculus, the calculus of variations, the theory of attractions, and analytical mechanics. In 1853 he was appointed Sedleian professor of natural philosophy, resigning it in June 1898. His chief public activity at Oxford was in connexion with the hebdomadal council, and with the Clarendon Press, of which he was for many years secretary. He was also a curator of the Bodleian Library, an honorary fellow of Queen's College, a governor of Winchester College and a visitor of Greenwich Observatory. In 1891 he was elected Master of Pembroke College, which dignity carried with it a canonry of Gloucester Cathedral. He died on the 29th of December 1898. See Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (1899). PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888), English political economist, was born at St Peter Port, Guernsey, on the 22nd of May 1807. He entered at Worcester College, Oxford, in 1825, where he took a double first in 1829. From 1830 to 1850 he was an assistant master at Rugby school. He then lived for some years in London, being engaged in business and literary work, and was appointed to serve on various royal commissions. He married in 1864. In 1868 he was elected Drummond professor of political economy at Oxford, and was thrice re-elected to the post, which he held till his death. In 1883 he was elected an honorary fellow of his college. In addition to his professorial work, he was in much request as a popular lecturer on political economy. He died in London on the 8th of January 1888. His principal publications, exclusive of pamphlets, were: The Principles of Currency (1869), Currency and Banking (1876), Chapters on Practical Political Economy (1878).

PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791), English moral and political philosopher, son of a dissenting minister, was born on the 23rd of February 1723, at Tynton, Glamorganshire. He was educated privately and at a dissenting academy in London, and became chaplain and companion to a Mr Streatfield at Stoke Newington. By the death of Mr Streatfield and of an uncle in 1756 his circumstances were considerably improved, and in 1757 he married a Miss Sarah Blundell, originally of Belgrave in Leicestershire. In 1767 he published a volume of sermons, which gained him the acquaintance of Lord Shelburne, an event which had much influence in raising his reputation and determining the character of his subsequent pursuits. It was, however, as a writer on financial and political questions that Price became widely known. In 1769, in a letter to Dr Franklin, he wrote some observations on the expectation of lives, the increase of mankind, and the population of London, which were published in the Philosophical Transactions of that year; in May 1770 he communicated to the Royal Society a paper on the proper method of calculating the values of contingent reversions. The publication of these papers is said to have exercised a beneficial influence in drawing attention to the inadequate calculations on which many insurance and benefit societies had recently been formed. In 1769 Price received the degree of D.D. from the university of Glasgow. In 1771 he published his Appeal to the Public on the Subject of the National Debt (ed. 1772 and 1774). This pamphlet excited considerable controversy, and is supposed to have influenced Pitt in re-establishing the sinking fund for the extinction of the national debt, which had been created by Walpole in 1716 and abolished in 1733. The means, however, which Price proposed for the extinction of the debt are described by Lord Overstone' as "a sort of hocus-pocus machinery," supposed to work "without loss to any one," and consequently

unsound.

Lord Overstone reprinted in 1857, for private circulation, Price's and other rare tracts on the national debt and the sinking fund.

Price then turned his attention to the question of the American colonies. He had from the first been strongly opposed to the war, and in 1776 he published a pamphlet entitled Observations on Civil Liberty and the Justice and Policy of the War with America. Several thousand copies of this work were sold within a few days; a cheap edition was soon issued; the pamphlet was extolled by one set of politicians and abused by another; amongst its critics were Dr Markham, archbishop of York, John Wesley, and Edmund Burke; and Price rapidly became one of the bestknown men in England. He was presented with the freedom of the city of London, and it is said that his pamphlet had no inconsiderable share in determining the Americans to declare their independence. A second pamphlet on the war with America, the debts of Great Britain, and kindred topics followed in the spring of 1777. His name thus became identified with the cause of American independence. He was the intimate friend of Franklin; he corresponded with Turgot; and in the winter of 1778 he was invited by Congress to go to America and assist in the financial administration of the states. This offer he refused from unwillingness to quit his own country and his family connexions. In 1781 he received the degree of D.D. from Yale College.

One of Price's most intimate friends was Dr Priestley, in spite of the fact that they took the most opposite views on morals and metaphysics. In 1778 appeared a published correspondence between these two liberal theologians on the subjects of materialism and necessity, wherein Price maintains, in opposition to Priestley, the free agency of man and the unity and immateriality of the human soul. Both Price and Priestley were what would now vaguely be called “Unitarians," though they occupied respectively the extreme right and the extreme left position of that school. Indeed, Price's opinions would seem to have been rather Arian than Socinian.

The pamphlets on the American War made Price famous. He preached to crowded congregations, and, when Lord Shelburne acceded to power, not only was he offered the post of private secretary to the premier, but it is said that one of the paragraphs in the king's speech was suggested by him and even inserted in his words. In 1786 Mrs Price died. There were no children by the marriage, his own health was failing, and the remainder of his life appears to have been clouded by solitude and dejection. The progress of the French Revolution alone cheered him. On the 19th of April 1791 he died, worn out with suffering and disease.

Ethical

The philosophical importance of Price is entirely in the region of ethics. The Review of the Principal Questions in Morals (1757, 3rd ed. revised 1787) contains his whole theory. It is divided into ten chapters, the first of which, though Theory. a small part of the whole, completes his demonstration of ethical theory. The remaining chapters investigate details relation to Butler and Kant (ch. iii. and ch. vii.). The work is proof minor importance, and are especially interesting as showing his fessedly a refutation of Hutcheson, but is rather constructive than polemical. The theory he propounds is closely allied to that of Cudworth, but is interesting mainly in comparison with the subsequent theories of Kant.

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he means, not that the ethical value of actions is independent of 1. Right and wrong belong to actions in themselves. By this their motive and end (see ch. vi), but rather that it is unaffected by consequences, and that it is more or less invariable for intelligent beings. II. This ethical value is perceived by reason or understanding (which, unlike Kant, he does not distinguish), which intuitively recognizes fitness or congruity between actions, agents and total circumstances. Arguing that ethical judgment is an act of discrimination, he endeavours to invalidate the doctrine of the moral sense (see SHAFTESBURY and HUTCHESON). Yet, in denying the importance of the emotions in moral judgment, he is driven back to the admission that right actions must be grateful" to us; that, in fact, moral approbation includes both an act of the understanding and an emotion of the heart. Still it remains true that In this conclusion he is in close agreement with Kant; reason is reason alone, in its highest development, would be a sufficient guide. the arbiter, and right is (1) not a matter of the emotions and (2) not relative to imperfect human nature. Price's main point of difference with Cudworth is that while Cudworth regards the moral criterion as a vonua or modification of the mind, existing in germ and developed by circumstances, Price regards it as acquired from the contemplation of actions, but acquired necessarily, immediately, intuitively. In his view of disinterested action (ch. iii.) he adds

nothing to Butler. III. Happiness he regards as the only end, conceivable by us, of divine Providence, but it is a happiness wholly dependent upon rectitude. Virtue tends always to happiness, and in the end must produce it in its perfect form.

Works. Besides the above-mentioned, Price wrote an Essay on the Population of England (2nd ed., 1780); two Fast-day Sermons, published respectively in 1779 and 1781; and Observations on the importance of the American Revolution and the means of rendering it a benefit to the World (1784). A complete list of his works is given as an appendix to Dr Priestley's Funeral Sermon. His views on the French Revolution are denounced by Burke in his Reflections on the Revolution in France. Notices of Price's ethical system occur in Mackintosh's Progress of Ethical Philosophy, Jouffroy's Introduction to Ethics, Whewell's History of Moral Philosophy in England; Bain's Mental and Moral Sciences. See also ETHICS, and T. Fowler's monograph on Shaftesbury and Hutcheson. For Price's life see memoir by his nephew, William Morgan. (J. M. M.)

PRICE, the equivalent in money for which a commodity is sold or purchased, the value of anything expressed in terms of a medium of exchange (see VALUE and WEALTH). The word is a doublet of "praise," commendation, eulogy, Lat. laus, and prize," a reward of victory, the ultimate source of which is the Lat. pretium; the Aryan root par-, to buy, is seen in Skr. pana, wages, reward, Gr. TITрάσкEW, to sell, &c. The O. Fr. pris, mod. prix, was taken from a Late Latin form precium, and had the various meanings of the English, " price," prize," and praise "; it was adapted in English as pris or prise and was gradually differentiated in form for the different meanings; thus " praise" was developed from an earlier verbal form preise or preyse in the 15th century; the original meaning survives in "appraise," to set a value to anything, cf. the current meaning of "to prize," to value highly. Prize," reward, does not appear as a separate form till the 16th century. In "prize-fight," a boxing contest for money, the idea of reward seems clear, but the word appears earlier than the form "prize" in this sense and means a contest or match, and may be a different word altogether; the New English Dictionary compares the Greek use of äλov, literally reward, hence contest. "Prize " in the sense of that which is captured in war, especially at sea, is a distinct word. It comes through the Fr. prise, early Romanic presa for prensa, from Lat. praehendere, to seize, capture. For the international law on the subject see PRIZE.

PRICHARD, JAMES COWLES (1786-1848), English physician and ethnologist, was born on the 11th of February 1786 at Ross in Herefordshire. His parents were of the Society of Friends, and he was educated at home, especially in modern languages and general literature. He adopted medicine as a profession mainly because of the facilities it offered for anthropological investigations. He took his M.D. at Edinburgh, afterwards reading for a year at Trinity College, Cambridge, whence, joining the Church of England, he migrated to St John's College, Oxford, afterwards entering as a gentleman commoner at Trinity College, Oxford, but taking no degree in either university. In 1810 he settled at Bristol as a physician, and in 1813 published his Researches into the Physical History of Man, in 2 vols., afterwards extended to 5 vols. The central principle of the book is the primitive unity of the human species, acted upon by causes which have since divided it into permanent varieties or races. The work is dedicated to Blumenbach, whose five races of man are adopted. But where Prichard excelled Blumenbach and all his other predecessors was in his grasp of the principle that people should be studied by combining all available characters. One investigation begun in this work requires special mention, the bringing into view of the fact, neglected or contradicted by philologists, that the Celtic nations are allied by language with the Slavonian, German and Pelasgian (Greek and Latin), thus forming a fourth European branch of the Asiatic stock (which would now be called Indo-European or Aryan). His special treatise containing Celtic compared with Sanskrit words appeared in 1831 under the title Eastern Origin of the Celtic nations. It is remarkable that the essay by Adolphe Pictet, De l'Affinité des langues celtiques avec le sanscrit, which was crowned by the French Academy and made its author's reputation, should have been published in 1837 in evident

ignorance of the earlier and in some respects stricter investigations of Prichard.

In 1843 Prichard published his Natural History of Man, in which he reiterated his belief in the specific unity of man, pointing out that "the same inward and mental nature is to be recognized in all the races." Prichard may fairly be honoured with the title of the founder of the English branch of the sciences of anthropology and ethnology. In 1811 he was appointed physician to St Peter's hospital, Bristol, and in 1814 to the Bristol infirmary. In 1822 he published Treatise on Diseases of the Nervous System (pt. i.), and in 1835 a Treatise on Insanity and other Disorders affecting the Mind, in which he advanced the theory of the existence of a distinct mental disease, "moral insanity." In 1842, following up this suggestion, he published On the different forms of Insanity in relation to Jurisprudence designed for the use of Persons concerned in Legal Questions regarding Unsoundness of Mind. In 1845 he was made a commissioner in lunacy, and removed to London. He died there three years later, on the 23rd of December, of rheumatic fever. At the time of his death he was president of the Ethnological Society and a fellow of the Royal Society. Among his less important works were: A Review of the Doctrine of a Vital Principle (1829); On the Treatment of Hemiplegia (1831); On the Extinction of some Varieties of the Human Race (1839); Analysis of Egyptian Mythology (1819).

See Memoir by Dr Thomas Hodgkin (1798–1866) in the Journal of the Ethnological Society (Feb. 1849); Memoir read before the Bath and Bristol branch of the Provincial Medical and Surgical Association (March 1849) by Dr J. A. Symonds (Journ. Eth. Soc., (1850); Prichard and Symonds in Special Relation to Mental Science, by Dr Hack Tuke (1891).

PRICK POSTS, an old architectural name given sometimes to the queen posts of a roof, and sometimes to the filling in quarters in framing. (See Post and PANE.)

PRIDE, THOMAS (d. 1658), parliamentarian general in the English Civil War, is stated to have been brought up by the parish of St Bride's, London. Subsequently he was a drayman and a brewer. At the beginning of the Civil War he served as a captain under the earl of Essex, and was gradually promoted to the rank of colonel. He distinguished himself at the battle of Preston, and with his regiment took part in the military occupation of London in December 1648, which was the first step towards bringing the king to trial. The second was the expulsion of the Presbyterian and Royalist elements in the House of Commons, for which Pride is chiefly remembered. This, resolved by the army council and ordered by the lord general, Fairfax, was carried out by Colonel Pride's regiment. Taking his stand at the entrance of the House of Commons with a written list in his hand, he caused the arrest or exclusion of the obnoxious members, who were pointed out to him. After about a hundred members had been thus dealt with (“Pride's Purge "), the mutilated House of Commons proceeded to bring the king to trial. Pride was one of the judges of the king and signed his death-warrant, appending to his signature a seal showing a coat of arms. He commanded an infantry brigade under Cromwell at Dunbar and Worcester. He took no conspicuous part in Commonwealth politics, except in opposing the proposal to confer the kingly dignity on Cromwell. He was knighted by the Protector in 1656, and was also chosen a member of the new House of Lords. He died at Nonsuch House, an estate which he had bought in Surrey, on the 23rd of October 1658. After the Restoration his body was ordered to be dug up and suspended on the gallows at Tyburn along with those of Cromwell, Ireton and Bradshaw, though it is said that the execution of this sentence was evaded.

Noble, Lives of the Regicides; Bate, Lives of the Prime Actors and Principal Contrivers of the Murder of Charles I.; Carlyle, Cromwell's Letters and Speeches.

PRIDEAUX, HUMPHREY (1648-1724), English divine and Oriental scholar, was born of good family at Place, in Cornwall, on the 3rd of May 1648, and received his early education at the grammar schools of Liskeard and Bodmin. In 1665 he was placed at Westminster under Busby, and in 1668 went on to