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P. C. Y.

P. G.

P. Gi.

P. G. K.

PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A.

Magdalen College, Oxford. Editor of Letters of Princess Elizabeth of England.

PERCY GARDNER, LITT.D., LL.D., F.S.A.

See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY.

PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D.

Prynne, William (in part);
Pym, John.
Polyclitus; Polygnotus;
Praxiteles.

Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University
Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philological Q; R.
Society.

PAUL GEORGE KONODY.

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Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of the Artist. Potter, Paul.
Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c.

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P. McC.

R. H. K.

R. I. P.

R. J. M.

R. L.*

R. Mo.

R. M. L.

R. M. W.

R. N. B.

R. Po.

R. P. S.

R. R. M.

R. S. C.

St C.

S. F. H.

PRIMROSE MCCONNELL, F.G.S.

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Member of the Royal Agricultural Society. Author of Diary of a Working Farmer; Reaping.
&c.

REV. ROBERT HATCH KENNETT, M.A., D.D.

Regius Professor of Hebrew, Cambridge, and Canon of Ely. Formerly Fellow and Psalms, Book of (in part).
Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, Queens' College, and University Lecturer in
Aramaic. Author of A Short Account of the Hebrew Tenses; In our Tongues; &c.

REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S.

Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London.

RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A.

{ Pycnogonida.

Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's Racquets.
Gazette, London.

RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.Z.S., F.G.S.

Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of
Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum; The Deer
of all Lands; &c.

RAY MORRIS, M.A.

Formerly Managing Editor, Railway Age Gazette, New York. Author of Railroad
Administration.

ROBERT MURRAY Leslie, M.A., M.D., M.R.C.P.

Porcupine (in part);

Porpoise; Primates;
Proboscidea; Prongbuck;
Rabbit (in part);
Rat; Ratel.

Railways: General Statistics
and Financial Organization.

Senior Physician, Prince of Wales's General Hospital, London. Lecturer on
Medicine, London Post-Graduate College. Author of Clinical Types of Pneu- Pygmy.

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Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London.
President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, Porch.
London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's
History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c.

ROBERT RANULF MARETT, M.A.

Reader in Social Anthropology, Oxford University, and Fellow and Tutor of Exeter Prayer.
College. Author of The Threshold of Religion:

ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT.

Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester.
Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville
and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects.

VISCOUNT ST CYRES.

See the biographical article: IDdesleigh, ist EARL OF.

SIDNEY FREDERIC HARMER, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.Z.S.

Keeper of Zoology, Natural History Departments, British Museum. Fellow,
formerly Tutor and Lecturer, King's College, Cambridge. Joint-editor of The
Cambridge Natural History.

ST GEORGE JACKSON MIVART, M.D., F.R.S.

See the biographical article: MIVART, ST GEOrge Jackson.

St G. M.

S. R. G.

SAMUEL RAWSON GARDINER, LL.D., D.C.L.

See the biographical article: GARDINER, S. R.

Pompeii: Oscan Inscriptions;
Praeneste (in part);
Praetuttii.

Quesnel, Pasquier;
Quietism.

Polyzoa;
Pterobranchia.

Rattlesnake (in part).

Prynne, William (in part).

T. As.

T. A. C.

T. A. I.

T. Ba.

T. F. D.

T. H.

T. H. H.*

T. L. H.

T. Se.

T. Wo.

W. A. B. C.

W. A L.

W. A. P.

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THOMAS HODGKIN, D.C.L., LITT.D.

See the biographical article: HODGKIN, THOMAS.

SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc.
Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S.,
London, 1887. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Countries of the King's
Award; India; Tibet.

SIR THOMAS LITTLE HEATH, K.C.B., SC.D.

Assistant-Secretary to the Treasury, London. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Author of Apollonius of Perga; Treatise on Conic Sections; The Thirteen Books of
Euclid's Elements; &c.

THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A.

Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges,
University of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of
Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson; &c.
THOMAS WOODHOUSE.

Head of the Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical College, Dundee.
REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D.

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Pompeii (in part);
Pomposa; Pomptine Marshes;
Popilia, Via; Portus;
Postumia, Via;

Praeneste (in part);
Praenestina, Via;
Puteoli; Pyrgi;
Ravenna (in part).

Queensland: Geography and
Statistics.

Post and Postal Service;
Pound (in part);
Praemunire.

Privateer;
Prize: War;
Raid; Rebellion.

Polo.

Ravenna (in part).

Quetta.

Porism.

Reeve, Henry.

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Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haut Dauphiné; The Range of Ragatz; Rambert.
the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland: The Alps in Nature and
in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1881; &c.

WILLIAM ALEXANDER LINDSAY, K.C., M.A., J.P., D.L., F.S.A.

Windsor Herald. Bencher of the Middle Temple. Peerage Counsel. Author of The
Royal Household, 1837-1897; &c.

WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A.

Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College,
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c.

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Precedence (in part).

Prince;
Provost (in part).

Rabbi.

Railways: Intra-Urban Rail

Formerly Chief Engineer, Rapid Transit Commission, New York. Advisory
Engineer, Royal Commission on London Traffic. Author of Track; Turnouts; &c. I ways.
WILLIAM ERNEST DALBY, M.A., M.INST.C.E.

Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering at the City and Guilds of London
Institute Central Technical College, South Kensington. Formerly University
Demonstrator in the Engineering Department, Cambridge. Author of The
Balancing of Engines; Valves and Valve-Gear Mechanism; &c.

WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A.

Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College,
London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (23rd edition).

Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple.

W. G.

WILLIAM GARNETT, M.A., D.C.L.

Educational Adviser to the London County Council. Formerly Fellow and

Power Transmission: Introductory and Mechanical; Railways: Locomotive Power.

Quarter Sessions, Court of;
Recognizance.

Lecturer of St John's College, Cambridge. Principal and Professor of Mathematics, Polytechnic (in part).
Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Author of Elementary Dynamics;
&c.

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W. L. G.

W. M.

W. M. F. P.

W. O. B.

W. R. M.

W. R. S.

W. W. F.*

W. Y.

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Archdeacon of Birmingham. Student and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford, 1884-
1891. Principal of Leeds Clergy School, 1891-1900. Author of The Mystery of the Prayers for the Dead.

Cross.

WILLIAM RICHARD MORFILL, M.A. (d. 1910).

Formerly Professor of Russian and the other Slavonic Languages in the University Pushkin.
of Oxford. Curator of the Taylorian Institution, Oxford. Author of Russia;
Slavonic Literature; &c.

WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D.

See the biographical article: SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON.

WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A.

Priest (in part);

Prophet (in part);

Psalms, Book of (in part);
Rameses (in part).

Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-Rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer, Pontifex.
Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greeks and Romans;
The Roman Festivals of the Republican Period; &c.

REV. WILLIAM YOUNG.

Minister, Higher Broughton Presbyterian Church, Manchester, 1877-1901, and Presbyterianism.
Association Secretary for the Religious Tract Society in the North of England.

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ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME XXII

cesses.

POLL, strictly the head, in men or animals. Skeat connects | of brutality, of which the characteristics can be studied in the the word with O. Swed. kolle (initial p and k being interchangeable) and considers a Celtic origin probable; cf. Irish coll, Welsh col, peak, summit. "Poll" is chiefly used in various senses derived from that of a unit in an enumeration of persons or things, e.g. poll-tax (q.v.), or "challenge to the polls" in the case of a jury (q.v.). The most familiar derivative uses are those connected with voting at parliamentary or other elections; thus to poll" is to vote or to secure a number of votes, and "the poll," the voting, the number of votes cast, or the time during which voting takes place. The verb "to poll" also means to clip or shear the top of anything, hence "polled " of hornless cattle, or "deed-poll" (i.e. a deed with smooth or unindented edges, as distinguished from an "indenture "). A tree which has been "polled," or cut back close in order to induce it to make short bushy growth, is called a "pollard." At the university of Cambridge, a pass" degree is known as a poll-degree.' This is generally explained as from the Greek oi Toλλol, the many, the common people.

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POLLACK (Gadus pollachius), a fish of the family Gadidae, abundant on rocky coasts of northern Europe, and extending as far south as the western parts of the Mediterranean, where, however, it is much scarcer and does not attain to the same size as in its real northern home. In Scotland and some parts of Ireland it is called lythe. It is distinguished from other species of the genus Gadus by its long pointed snout, which is twice as long as the eye, with projecting lower jaw, and without a barbel at the chin. The vent is below the anterior half of the first dorsal fin. A black spot above the base of the pectoral fin is another distinguishing mark. Although pollack are wellflavoured fish, and smaller individuals (from 12 to 16 in.) excellent eating, they do not form any considerable article of trade, and are not preserved, the majority being consumed by the captors. Specimens of 12 lb are common, but the species is said to attain occasionally as much as 24 lb in weight. also COALFISH.)

(See

POLLAIUOLO, the popular name of the brothers Antonio and Piero di Jacobo Benci, Florentines who contributed much to Italian art in the 15th century. They were called Pollaiuolo because their father was a poulterer. The nickname was also extended to Simone, the nephew of Antonio.

ANTONIO (1429-1498) distinguished himself as a sculptor, jeweller, painter and engraver, and did valuable service in perfecting the art of enamelling. His painting exhibits an excess

XXII. I

"Saint Sebastian," painted in 1475, and now in the National Gallery, London. A "St Christopher and the Infant Christ " is in the Metropolitan Museum, New York. But it was as a sculptor and metal-worker that he achieved his greatest sucThe exact ascription of his works is doubtful, as his brother Piero did much in collaboration with him. The museum of Florence contains the bronze group "Hercules strangling Cacus" and the terra-cotta bust "The Young Warrior "; and in the South Kensington Museum, London, is a bas-relief representing a contest between naked men. In 1489 Antonio took up his residence in Rome, where he executed the tomb of Sixtus IV. (1493), a composition in which he again manifested the quality of exaggeration in the anatomical features of the figures. In 1496 he went to Florence in order to put the finishing touches to the work already begun in the sacristy of Santo Spirito. He died in 1498, having just finished his mausoleum of Innocent VIII., and was buried in the church of San Pietro in Vincula, where a monument was raised to him near that of his brother.

PIERO (1443-1496) was a painter, and his principal works were his "Coronation of the Virgin," an altar-piece painted in 1483, in the choir of the cathedral at San Gimignano; his "Three Saints," an altar-piece, and "Prudence" are both at the Uffizi Gallery.

SIMONE (1457-1508), nephew of Antonio Pollaiuolo, a celebrated architect, was born in Florence and went to Rome in 1484; there he entered his uncle's studio and studied architecture. On his return to Florence he was entrusted with the completion of the Strozzi palace begun by Benedetto de Maiano, and the cornice on the façade has earned him lasting fame. His highly coloured accounts of Rome earned for him the nickname of il Cronaca (chronicler). About 1498 he built the church of San Francesco at Monte and the vestibule of the sacristy of Santo Spirito. In collaboration with Guiliano da Sangallo he designed the great hall in the Palazzo Vecchio. He was a close friend aud adherent of Savonarola.

See also Maud Cruttwell, Antonio Pollaiuolo (1907).

POLLAN (Coregonus pollan), the name given to a species of the Salmonoid genus Coregonus (whitefish) which has been found in the large and deep loughs of Ireland only. A full account of the fish by its first describer, W. Thompson, may be found in his Natural History of Ireland, iv. 168.

II

has ceased to be receptive before the anthers open, or the anthers have withered before the stigma becomes receptive, when crosspollination only is possible, or the stages of maturity in the two organs are not so distinct, when self-pollination becomes possible later on. The flower is termed proterandrous or proterogynous according as anthers or stigmas mature first. The term homogamy is applied to the simultaneous maturity of stigma and anthers. Spontaneous self-pollination is rendered impossible in some homogamous flowers in consequence of the relative position of the anthers and stigma-this condition has been termed herkogamy. Flowers in which the relative position of the organs allows of spontaneous self-pollination may be all alike as regards length of style and stamens (homomorphy or homostyly), or differ in this respect (heteromorphy) the styles

POLLARD, EDWARD ALBERT (1828-1872), American | pointed out by Sprengel, may be so well marked that the stigma journalist, was born in Nelson county, Virginia, on the 27th of February 1828. He graduated at the university of Virginia in 1849, studied law at the College of William and Mary, and in Baltimore (where he was admitted to the bar), and was engaged in newspaper work in California until 1855. In 1857-1861 he was clerk of the judiciary committee of the National House of Representatives. By 1859 he had become an outspoken Secessionist, and during the Civil War he was one of the principal editors of the Richmond Examiner, which supported the Confederacy but was hostile to President Jefferson Davis. In 1864 Pollard sailed for England, but the vessel on which he sailed was captured as a blockade runner, and he was confined in Fort Warren in Boston Harbour from the 29th of May until the 12th of August, when he was paroled. In December he was placed in close confinement at Fort Monroe by order of Secretary Stanton, but was soon again paroled by General B. F. Butler, and in January proceeded to Richmond to be exchanged there for Albert D. Richardson (1833-1869), a well-known correspondent of the New York Tribune, who, however, had escaped before Pollard arrived. In 1867-1869 Pollard edited a weekly paper at Richmond, and he conducted the Political Pamphlet there during the presidential campaign of 1868.

His publications include Black Diamonds Gathered in the Darkey Homes of the South (1859), in which he advocated a reopening of the slave trade; The Southern History of the War (3 vols.: First Year of the War, with B. M. DeWitt, 1862; Second Year of the War, 1864; Third Year of the War, 1864); Observations in the North: Eight Months in Prison and on Parole (1865); The Lost Cause (1866); Lee and His Lieutenants (1867); The Lost Cause Regained (1868), a southern view of reconstruction urging the necessity of white supremacy: The Life of Jefferson Davis (1869), an arraignment of the Confederate president; and The Virginia Tourist (1870).

POLLENTIA (mod. Pollenzo), an ancient town of Liguria, Italy, 10 m. to the north of Augusta Bagiennorum, on the left bank of the Tanarus (mod. Tanaro). Its position on the road from Augusta Taurinorum to the coast at Vada Sabatia, at the point of divergence of a road to Hasta (Asti) gave it military importance. Decimus Brutus managed to occupy it an hour before Mark Antony in 43 B.C.; and it was here that Stilicho on the 29th of March 403 fought the battle with Alaric which though undecided led the Goths to evacuate Italy. The place was famous for its brown wool, and for its pottery. Considerable remains of ancient buildings, an amphitheatre, a theatre and a temple still exist. The so-called temple of Diana is more probably a tomb.

See G. Franchi-Pont in Atti dell' accademia di Tornio (18051808), p. 321 sqq.

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S

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(From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.) w ɔdi FIG. 1.-Long-styled, L, and short-styled, K, flowers of Primula sinensis.

G, Level of stigma; S, level of anthers; P, N, pollen grains and stigmatic papillae of long-styled form; p, n, ditto of short-styled form. and stamens being of different lengths in different flowers (heterostyly) or the stamens only are of different lengths (heteranthery). Flowers which are closed at the time of maturity of anthers and stigmas are termed cleistogamous. Self-pollination is effected in very various ways. In the simplest case the anthers are close to the stigmas, covering these with pollen when they open; this occurs in a number of small annual plants, also in Narcissus, Crocus, &c. In snowdrop and other pendulous flowers the anthers form a cone around the style and the pollen falls on to the underlying stigmas, or in erect flowers the pollen may fall on to the stigmas which lie directly beneath the opening anthers (e.g. Narthecium). In very manycases the pollen is carried to the stigma by elongation, curvature or some other movement of the filament, the style or stigma, or corolla or some other part of the flower, or by correlated movements of two or more parts. For instance, in many flowers the filaments are at first directed outwards so that self-pollination is not possible, but later incline towards the stigmas and pollinate them (e.g. numerous Saxifragaceae, Cruciferae and others), or the style, which first projects beyond the anthers,

POLLINATION, in botany, the transference of the pollen from the stamen to the receptive surface, or stigma, of the pistil of a flower. The great variety in the form, colour and scent of flowers (see FLOWER) is intimately associated with pollination which is effected by aid of wind, insects and other agencies. Pollen may be transferred to the stigma of the same flower self-pollination (or autogamy), or to the stigma of another flower on the same plant or another plant of the same species-cross-shortens later on so that the anthers come into contact with the pollination (or allogamy). Effective pollination may also occur between flowers of different species, or occasionally, as in the case of several orchids, of different genera-this is known as hybridization.

The method of pollination is to some extent governed by the distribution of the stamens and pistil. In the case of unisexual flowers, whether monoecious, that is, with staminate and pistillate flowers on one and the same plant, such as many of our native trees-oak, beech, birch, alder, &c., or dioecious with staminate and pistillate flowers on different plants, as in willows and poplars, cross pollination only is possible. In bisexual or hermaphrodite flowers, that is, those in which both stamens and pistil are present, though self-pollination might seem the obvious course, this is often prevented or hindered by various arrangements which favour cross-pollination. Thus the anthers and stigmas in any given flower are often mature at different times; this condition, which is known as dichogamy and was first

stigmas (e.g. species of Cactaceae), or the style bends so that the stigma is brought within the range of the pollen (e.g. species of Oenothera, Epilobium, most Malvaceae, &c.). In Mirabilis Jalapa and others the filaments and style finally become intertwined, so that pollen is brought in contact with the stigma. Selfpollination frequently becomes possible towards the end of the life of a flower which during its earlier stages has been capable only of cross-pollination. This is associated with the fact, so ably demonstrated by Darwin, that, at any rate in a large number of cases, cross-pollination yields better results, as measured by the number of seeds produced and the strength of the offspring, than self-pollination; the latter is, however, preferable to absence of pollination. In many cases pollen has no effect on the stigma of the same flower, the plants are selfsterile, in other cases external pollen is more effective (pre-potent) than pollen from the same flower; but in a very large number of cases experiment has shown that there is little or no difference

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