of its towns were removed by Augustus to people the city of Nicopolis, which he founded to commemorate his victory at Actium, B. c. 31; and in his time the country is described by Strabo as utterly worn out and exhausted. (Strab. p. 460.) Under the Romans the Aetolians appear to have remained in the same rude condition in which they had always been. The interior of Aetolia was probably rarely visited by the Romans, for they had no road in the inland part of the country; and their only road was one leading from the coast of Acarnania across the Achelous, by Pleuron and Calydon to Chalcis and Molycreia on the Aetolian coast. (Comp. Brandstäten, Die Geschichten des Aetolischen Landes, Volkes und Bundes, Berlin, 1844.)

The towns in Aetolia were: I. In Old Aetolia. 1. In the lower plain, between the sea and Mount Aracynthus, CALYDON, PLEURON, OLENUS, PYLENE, CHALCIS (these 5 are the Aetolian towns mentioned by Homer), HALICYRNA, ELAEUS, PAEANIUM OF PHANA, PROSCHIUM, ITHORIA, CONOPE (afterwards Arsinoë), LYSIMACHIA. In the upper plain N. of Mount Aracynthus, ACRAE, METAPA, PAMPHIA, PHYTEUM, TRICHONIUM, THESTIENSES, THERMUM. In Aetolia Epictetus, on the sea-coast, MACYNIA, MOLYCREIUM or MOLYCREIA: a little in the interior, on the borders of Locris, POTIDANIA, CROCYLEIUM, TEICHIUM, AEGITIUM: further in the interior, CALLIUM, Oechalia [see p. 65,a.], APERANTIA, AGRINIUM, Ephyra, the last of which was a town of the Agraei. [AGRAEI.] The site of the following towns is quite unknown: - Ellopium ('EXλómov, Pol. ap. Steph. B. s. v.); Thorax (Oúpat, s. v.); Pherae (Pepal, Steph. B. s. v.).

AITRARN

COIN OF AETOLIA.

AEXO'NE. [ATTICA.]

AFFILAE (Eth. Affilanus), a town of Latium, in the more extended sense of the term, but which must probably have in earlier times belonged to the Hernicans. It is still called Affile, and is situated in the mountainous district S. of the valley of the Anio, about 7 miles from Subiaco. We learn from the treatise ascribed to Frontinus (de Colon. p. 230), that its territory was colonized in the time of the Gracchi, but it never enjoyed the rank of a colony, and Pliny mentions it only among the "oppida " of Latium. (H. V. iii. 5. § 9.) Inscriptions, fragments of columns, and other ancient relics are still visible in the modern village of Affile. (Nibby, Dintorni di Roma, vol. i. p. 41.)

[E. H. B.]

AFFLIA'NUS or AEFLIA'NUS MONS (the latter form of the name appears to be the more correct) was the name given in ancient times to a mountain near Tibur, fronting the plain of the Campagna and now called Monte S. Angelo, though marked on Gell's map as Monte Affliano. The Claudian aqueduct was carried at its foot, where the remains of it still visible are remarkable for the boldness and grandeur of their construction. An inscription which records the completion of some of these works has preserved to us the ancient name of

the mountain. (Nibby, Dintorni di Roma, vol. i. p. 25; Fabretti, Inscr. p. 637.) [E. H. B.]

AFRICA ('Appikh: Adj. Afer, Africus, Africanus), the name by which the quarter of the world still called Africa was known to the Romans, who received it from the Carthaginians, and applied it first to that part of Africa with which they became first acquainted, namely, the part about Carthage, and afterwards to the whole continent. In the latter sense the Greeks used the name Libya ('Appin only occurring as the Greek form of the Latin Africa); and the same name is continually used by Roman writers. In this work the continent is treated of under LIBYA; and the present article is confined to that portion of N. Africa which the Romans called specifically Africa, or Africa Propria (or Vera), or Africa Provincia ('Appucǹ ǹ ¡díws), and which may be roughly described as the old Carthaginian terri tory, constituted a Roman province after the Third Punic War (B. C. 146).

The N. coast of Africa, after trending W. and E. with a slight rise to the N., from the Straits of Gibraltar to near the centre of the Mediterranean, suddenly falls off to the S. at C. Bon (Mercurii Pr.) in 37° 4' 20" N. lat., and 10° 53′ 35′′ E. long., and preserves this general direction for about 3° of latitude, to the bottom of the Gulf of Khabs, the ancient Lesser Syrtis; the three chief salient points of this E. part of the coast, namely, the promontories of Clypea (at the N., a little S. of C. Bon) and Caput Vada (Kapoudiah, about the middle), and the island of Meninx (Jerbah, at the S.), lying on the same meridian. The country within this angle, formed of the last low ridges by which the Atlas sinks down to the sea, bounded on the S. and SW. by the Great Desert, and on the W. extending about as far as 9° E. long., formed, roughly speaking, the Africa of the Romans; but the precise limits of the country included under the name at different periods can only be understood by a brief historical

account.

That part of the continent of Africa, which forms the S. shore of the Mediterranean, W. of the Delta of the Nile, consists of a strip of habitable land, hemmed in between the sea on the N. and the Great Desert (Sahăra) on the S., varying greatly in breadth in its E. and W. halves. The W. part of this sea-board has the great chain of ATLAS interposed as a barrier against the torrid sands of the Sahara; and the N. slope of this range, descending in a series of natural terraces to the sea, watered by many streams, and lying on the S. margin of the N. temperate zone, forms one of the finest regions on the surface of the earth. But, at the great bend in the coast above described (namely, about C. Bon), the chain of the Atlas ceases; and, from the shores of the Lesser Syrtis, the desert comes close to the sea, leaving only narrow slips of habitable land, till, at the bottom of another great bend to the S., forming the Greater Syrtis (Gulf of Sidra), the sand and water meet (about 19° E. long.), forming a natural division between the 2 parts of N. Africa. E. of this point lay CYRENAICA, the history of which is totally distinct from that of the W. portion, with which we are now concerned.

For what follows, certain land-marks must be borne in mind. Following the coast E. of the Fretum Gaditanum (Straits of Gibraltar) to near 2° W. long., we reach the largest river of N. Africa, the MALVA, Mulucha, or Molochath (Wady Mulwia or Mohalou), which now forms the boundary of Ma

rocco and Algier, and was an equally important frontier in ancient times. The next point of refer ence is a headland at about 4° E. long., the site of the ancient city of SALDAE. E. of this, again, somewhat beyond 6° E. long., is another frontier river, the AMPSAGA (Wady el Kebir): further on, near 8° E. long., another river, the RUBRICATUS (Wady Seibous), at the mouth of which stood HIPPO REGIUS (Bonah); and, about 1° further E., the river TUSCA (Wady-ez-Zain). The last great river of this coast, W. of the great turning point (C. Bon), is the BAGRADAS (Majerdak), falling into the sea just below C. Farina, the W. headland (as C. Bon is the eastern) of the great Gulf of Tunis, near the centre of which a rocky promontory marks the site of Carthage. Lastly, let us note the bottom of the great gulf called the Lesser Syrtis, at the S. extremity of the E. coast already noticed, with the neighbouring great salt-lake of Al-Sibkah, the ancient Palus Tritonis, between 33° and 34° N. lat.; N. and NW. of which the country is for the most part desert, as far as the SE. slopes of the Atlas chain. The country immediately around the lake itself forms the E.-most of a series of oases, which stretch from E. to W. along the S. foot of the Atlas chain, and along the N. margin of the Sahăra, and thus mark out a natural S. frontier for this portion of N. Africa.

In the earliest times recorded, the whole N. coast of the continent W. of Egypt was peopled by various tribes of the great Libyan race, who must be carefully distinguished from the Ethiopian or negro races of the interior. S. of the Libyan tribes, and on the N. limits of the Sahăra, dwelt the GAETULI and GARAMANTES, and S. of these, beyond the desert, the proper Ethiopians or negroes. The Libyans were of the Caucasian family of mankind, and for the most part of nomade habits. At periods so early as to be still mythical to the Greeks, colonists from the W. coasts of Asia settled on the shores of Africa, and especially on the part now treated of. Sallust has preserved a curious tradition respecting the ear. liest Asiatic colonists, to which a bare reference is enough (Jugurth. 18). The chief colonies were those of the Phoenicians, such as HIPPO ZARYTUS, UTICA, TUNES, HADRUMETUM, LEPTIS, and above all, though one of the latest, CARTHAGO. In these settlements, the Phoenicians established themselves as traders rather than conquerors; and they do not seem to have troubled themselves about bringing the native peoples into subjection, except so far as was needful for their own security. Carthage, which was built on the most commanding position on the whole coast, gradually surpassed all the other Phoenician colonies, and brought them, as allies, if not as subjects, to acknowledge her supremacy. She also founded colonies of her own along the whole coast, from the Straits to the bottom of the Great Syrtis. The question of the extent and character of the Carthaginian dominion belongs to another article [CARTHAGO]; but it is necessary here to advert briefly to its condition when the Romans first became acquainted with the country. At that time the proper territory of Carthage was confined within very narrow limits around the city itself. The sea-coast W. and S. of C. Bon, as far as the river Rubricatus and Hippo Regius on the W. and a point N. of Hadrumetum (about 36° N. lat.) on the S., and the parts inland along the river Bagradas, and between it and the sea, appear to have formed the original territory of Carthage, corresponding nearly to the region after

wards known as ZEUGITANA, but reaching further along the W. coast, and not so far inland on the SW. This, or even less, was the extent of country at first included by the Romans under the name of Africa, and to this very day it bears the same name, Frikiak or Afrikeah. It is remarkable that, neither in the wars of Agathocles nor of the Romans with Carthage in Africa, does any mention occur of military operations out of this limited district. But still, before the wars with Rome, the territory of Carthage had received some accession. On the E. coast, S. of 36° N. lat., flourishing maritime cities had been established, some-as Leptis and Hadrumetum even before Carthage, and some by the Carthaginians. These cities were backed by a fertile but narrow plain, bounded on the W. by a range of mountains, which formed the original BYZACIUM, a district, according to Pliny, 250 Roman miles in circuit, and extending S.-wards as far as Thenae, opposite the island of Cercina (in about 34° 30′ N. lat.), where the Lesser Syrtis was considered to begin. This district had been added to the possessions of the Carthaginians, and Polybius (iii. 23) speaks of their anxiety to conceal it from the knowledge of the Romans, as well as their commercial settlements further along the coast, called EMPORIA. This word, Emporia, though afterwards used as the name of a district, denoted at first, according to its proper meaning, settlements established for the sake of commerce; and it appears to have included all the Phoenician and Carthaginian colonies along the whole coast from the N. extremity of the Lesser Syrtis to the bottom of the Greater Syrtis. Any possession of the E. part of this region, in a strictly territorial sense, would have been worthless from the nature of the country, but the towns were maintained as centres of commerce with the inland tribes, and as an additional security, besides the desert, against any danger from the Greek states of Cyrenaica.

Such was the general position of the Carthaginian dominion in Africa at the time of the Punic Wars; extending over their own immediate territory to about 80 miles S. of the capital, and along the E. coast of Tunis and isolated points on the W. part of the coast of Tripoli. The whole inner district in the central and SW. parts of the later province of Africa was in the possession of the Libyan tribes, whose services as mercenaries Carthage could obtain in war, but whom she never even attempted to subdue. These tribes are spoken of by Greek and Latin writers under a general name which describes their mode of life as wandering herdmen, Noμádes, or, in the Latin form, NUMIDAE. They possessed the country along the N. coast as far W. as the Straits; but those of them that were settled to the W. of the river Mulucha were called by another name, Maupoi, perhaps from a greater darkness of complexion, and, after them, the Romans called the country W. of the Mulucha MAURETANIA; while that E. of the Mulucha, to the W. frontier of Carthage, and also SW. and S. of the Carthaginian possessions as far as the region of the Syrtes, was included under the general designation of NUMIDIA.

In this region, at the time of the Second Punic War, two tribes were far more powerful than all the rest, namely, in the W. and larger portion, between the rivers Mulucha and Ampsaga, the MASSAESYLII, occupying the greater part of the modern Algier; and E. of them, from the river Ampsaga and round the whole inland frontier of Carthage, the MASSYLII, the residence of whose chieftain, called by the Romans

between the kings of Mauretania and Numidia to | make a party of his own, composed of adventurers like himself, and who now espoused the cause of Caesar. (Appian. B. C. iv. 54; Dion Cass. xliv. 3.) Just before the close of B. C. 47, Caesar landed in Africa; and, after a brief but critical campaign, overthrew the united forces of the other party in the battle of Thapsus, in April, 46. The kingdom of Numidia was now taken possession of by Caesar, who erected it into a province, and committed its government to Sallustius, the historian, as proconsul, “in name," says Dion Cassius, "to govern, but in deed to plunder." (Hirt. B. Afr. 97; Dion Cass. xliii. 9; Appian. B. C. ii. 100.) Henceforth Numidia became known by the name of New Africa, and the former Roman province as Old Africa. (Appian. B. C. iv. 53; Plin. v. 4. s. 3.) But further, within the province of New Africa itself, Caesar is said to have made a partition, to reward the services of Sittius and of the kings of Mauretania; giving to the latter the W. part of Numidia, as far E. (probably) as Saldae (possibly to the Ampsaga), and to the former the territory about Cirta. (Appian. B. C. iv. 54.) Very probably this partition amounted to nothing more than leaving his allies, for the present, in possession of what they had already seized, especially as, in his anxiety to return to Rome, Caesar settled the affairs of Africa in great haste. (Dion, xliii. 14, τά τε ἄλλα ἐν τῇ ̓Αφρικῇ διὰ βραχέος, ¿s évĤjv μáriota, KaтασTHσαs.) Among the exiles from Africa of the defeated party, who had taken refuge with the sons of Pompey in Spain, was a certain Arabion, whom Appian (iv. 54) calls a son of a certain Masinissa, the ally of Juba. This man, after Caesar's murder, returned to Numidia, expelled Bocchus, and slew Sittius by stratagem. This story of Appian's is confused and doubtful, even with the help of a few obscure words in a letter of Cicero which have some appearance of confirming it. (Ad Att. xv. 17, Arabioni de Sitio nihil irascor; comp. Dion Cass. xlviii. 22.)

In the arrangements of the second triumvirate, B. C. 43, the whole of Africa was assigned to Octavian. (Dion Cass. xlvi. 55; Appian. B. C. iv. 53.) T. Sextius, a former legate of Julius Caesar, was governor of the New Province; while Q. Cornificius and D. Laelius held Old Africa for the so-called republican party, and to them many betook themselves who had escaped from the cruelties of the triumvirs at Rome. A war ensued, the events of which are related differently by the historians; but it ended in the defeat and death of Cornificius and Laelius, B. c. 42. (Appian. B. C. iii. 85, iv. 36, 52-56; Dion Cass. xlviii. 21.) After another and successful struggle with C. Fango, which there is not space to relate (see Dion Cass. xlviii. 22 -24; Appian. B. C. v. 12, 26, 75), Sextius found himself obliged to give up both the African provinces to Lepidus, to whom they had been assigned in the new arrangements made by the triumvirs after the battle of Philippi, and confirmed after the war of Perusia, B. C. 41. By the surrender and retirement of Lepidus, both the African provinces came into the power of Octavian, B. c. 36. In the general settlement of the empire after the overthrow of Antony, B. c. 30, Augustus restored to the young Juba, son of Juba I., his paternal kingdom of Numidia (Dion Cass. li. 15); but shortly afterwards, B. C. 25, he resumed the possession of Numidia, giving Juba in exchange the two Mauretanias, the E. boundary of his kingdom being fixed at Saldae.

(Strab. pp. 828, 831.) [MAURETANIA.] Thus the two provinces of Africa were finally united to the Roman empire, consisting of Old Africa, or the ancient Carthaginian territory, namely, Zeugitana and Byzacium, and New Africa, or, as it was also called, Numidia Provincia; the boundaries being, on the W., at Saldae, where Africa joined Mauretania Caesariensis, and on the E., the monument of the Philaeni, at the bottom of the Great Syrtis, where Africa touched Cyrenaica. The boundaries between Old and New Africa remained as before, namely, on the N. coast, the New Province was divided from the Old by the river Tusca, and on the E. coast by the dyke of Scipio, which terminated at Thenae, at the N. entrance of the Syrtis Minor. (Plin. v. 4. s. 3.) This province of Africa was assigned to the senate, and made a proconsular province, B. C. 27 (Strab. p. 840; Dion Cass. liii. 12).

A further change was made by Caligula, in two particulars. First, as to the western boundary: when, having put to death Ptolemy, the son of Juba II., he made his kingdom of Mauretania a Roman province, he also extended its boundary eastwards from Saldae to the river Ampsaga, which became thenceforth the W. boundary of Numidia, or New Africa. (Tac. Hist. i. 11.) But he also changed the government of the province. Under Augustus and Tiberius, the one legion (III), which was deemed sufficient to protect the province against the barbarians on the S. frontier, had been under the orders of the proconsul; but Caligula, moved by fear of the power and popularity of the proconsul M. Silanus, deprived him of the military command, and placed the legion under a legatus of his own. (Tac. Hist. iv. 48.) From the account of Dion Cassius, which is, however, obviously inexact in some points, it would seem that Numidia was altogether separated from Africa, and made an imperial province under the legatus Caesaris. (Dion Cass. lix. 20: ai δίχα τὸ ἔθνος νείμας, ἑτέρῳ τό τε στρατιωτικών καὶ τοὺς νομάδας τοὺς περὶ αὐτὸ προσέταξε.) citus does not mention this separation, but rather points out the evil results of the divided authority of the proconsul and legatus in a way which seems to imply that they had coordinate powers in the same province. A recent writer suggests that Numidia was always regarded, from the time of the settlement by Augustus, as a province distinct from Old Africa; that it may have been governed by a legatus under the proconsul; and that the only change made by Caligula was the making the legatus immediately dependent on the emperor (Marquardt, Becker's Rom. Alt. vol. iii. p. 229); and certainly, in the list given by Dion Cassius (liii. 12) of the provinces as constituted by Augustus, Numidia is mentioned as well as Africa. On the whole, however, it seems that the exact relation of the New Province of Africa to the Old, from the time of Caligula to that of Diocletian, must be considered as somewhat doubtful.

Ta

The above historical review may aid in removing the difficulty often found in understanding the statements of the ancient writers respecting the limits of Africa. Mela (i. 7; comp. c. 6), writing in the reign of Claudius, gives Africa its widest extent, from the river Ampsaga and the promontory Metagonites on the W. (the same, doubtless, as the Tretum of Strabo, Ras Seba Rous, i. e. 7 Capes) to the Arac Philaenorum on the E.; while Pliny (v. 4. s. 3), making Numidia extend from the Ampsaga to the Tusca, and Africa from the Tusca to the frontier of