GRAPHICAL NOTES 15 ether such a division is possible, but JOGRAPHICAL NOTES material, see the last paragraph of the Preface, page viii.) a recapitulation of physiographic and sec1783, the development of which was traced becoming increasingly common, however, ge course in American history at about this es follow, which have been found useful in s knowledge of these subjects. of American History, 1-22. Powell, J. W., Physiogof the United States. Shaler, N. S., Physiography. Narrative and Critical History of America, vol. Town and County Government (Johns Hopkins New England. II), 437-474. Eggleston, E., The Beginners of 315-346. Fiske, J., The Beginnings of New rd, G. E., Local Constitutional History, 51-99; A. M., The American People, vol. I. Mathews, on of New England, chs. 1, 2. area. A., Economic History of Virginia, vol. I, chs. I, VII; Plantation X; Institutional History of Virginia, I, chs. I and III. wn and County Government (Johns Hopkins HistoriII), 437-489. Commons, J. R., etc., A Documentary American Industrial Society, vol. I. Doyle, J. A., The lonies in America, Virginia, 101-184. Eggleston, E., The of a Nation, 1-98. Fiske, J., Old Virginia and Her , II, 1-44. Jefferson, T., Notes on Virginia (published ward, Local Constitutional History, 102-117; 358-387. Middle A. B., The German Element in the United States, I, chs. 5, 6. States. The judici ary. The executive. Weakness of the Confederation. revenue was to be obtained by dividing its expenses among the states in proportion to the value of land held by individuals, but there was no method of forcing a state to pay, and during its existence the Confederation received only about $6,000,000 of the $16,000,000 for which it asked. There was no general judiciary, but Congress was given power to select certain state courts to try piracies and felonies on the high seas, and to establish courts of appeals in prize cases. One such court was established and was active, but was in 1784 discontinued, the war claims having been mostly adjudicated. Congress was authorized also to call special courts, made up according to a carefully detailed plan, to decide boundary disputes between states. No executive department was provided for, but Congress had power to appoint civil officers, and in 1783, as a result of hard experience during the war, executive business had been divided among three departments. The Secretary of Foreign Affairs was Robert Livingston of New York, succeeded in 1784 by John Jay of the same state, who came to be the most influential man at the seat of government. Robert Morris was Superintendent of Finance until 1784, when he gave up in despair or disgust, and was succeeded by a board of three commissioners. General Knox in 1785 followed General Lincoln as Secretary at War. A naval department was provided for, but remained unorganized. The post office was but a small affair and was not considered as a department. The government was weak because there was no head to unite and correlate the work of the departments, because these executive officers had no powers independent of Congress, and because Congress was so dependent upon the states. The intention of those who drew up the Articles seems to have been to divide the sovereignty between the states and the national government; to make each sovereign within its own sphere. Political theorists are not in agreement as to whether such a division is possible, but however this may be, there can be little doubt that no division was accomplished by this agreement. The powers of the general government were so few that it became essentially a creature of the states, and they practically retained the whole sovereign power during the period. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES (As to the use of this material, see the last paragraph of the Preface, page viii.) This chapter is but a recapitulation of physiographic and sectional factors existing in 1783, the development of which was traced in volume one. As it is becoming increasingly common, however, to begin the basic college course in American history at about this period, a few references follow, which have been found useful in expanding the students' knowledge of these subjects. Farrand, L., Basis of American History, 1-22. Powell, J. W., PhysiogPhysiographic Regions of the United States. Shaler, N. S., Physiography. raphy (Winsor, J., Narrative and Critical History of America, vol. IV, pp. i-xxx). England. Channing, E., Town and County Government (Johns Hopkins New Historical Studies, II), 437-474. Eggleston, E., The Beginners of a Nation, 98-188; 315-346. Fiske, J., The Beginnings of New England. Howard, G. E., Local Constitutional History, 51-99; 319-351. Low, A. M., The American People, vol. I. Mathews, L. K., Expansion of New England, chs. 1, 2. area. Bruce, P. A., Economic History of Virginia, vol. I, chs. I, VII; Plantation vol. II, ch. XX; Institutional History of Virginia, I, chs. I and III. Channing, Town and County Government (Johns Hopkins Historical Studies, II), 437-489. Commons, J. R., etc., A Documentary History of American Industrial Society, vol. I. Doyle, J. A., The English Colonies in America, Virginia, 101-184. Eggleston, E., The Beginners of a Nation, 1-98. Fiske, J., Old Virginia and Her Neighbors, II, 1-44. Jefferson, T., Notes on Virginia (published separately and in his Writings). Howard, Local Constitutional History, 102-117; 358-387. Middle Faust, A. B., The German Element in the United States, I, chs. 5, 6. States. The frontier. Elements of union. Articles of Roosevelt, T., The Winning of the West, I, chs. I, V, VI. Turner, F. J., The Significance of the Frontier in American History (Am. Hist. Assoc., Report, 1893, 197-227). Faust, A. B., German Element in the United States, I, chs. 10, 11, 12. Frothingham, R., Rise of the Republic, chs. III, IV, VII. Howard, G. E., Preliminaries of the Revolution, ch. I. Shaler, N. S., History of United States, ch. I. American History Leaflet, no. 20. The Federalist (any edi tion. Sources. tion), nos. 15, 16, 21, 22. General accounts. Fiske, J., Critical Period of American History, chs. I and II. Frothingham, R., Rise of the Republic, 1–32, 101-157, and ch. XII. McLaughlin, A. C., The Confederation and the Constitution, 35–53. Small, A., Beginnings of American Nationality (Johns Hopkins Historical Studies, VIII), 1–89. CHAPTER II THE HISTORY OF THE CONFEDERATION THE chief claim of the national government under the Confederation to consideration lay in its ownership and control of lands west of the mountains, and its permanent contribution to American development was the enactment of regulations for the survey and government of this area. The manner in which it became possessed of this immense territory was as follows. cessions. Seven of the colonies, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Land York, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia, had claimed, on the basis of charters and of Indian treaties, land stretching westward to the Mississippi. The British government had wished to make the mountains the western boundary of the several colonies, and itself to direct the development of the Mississippi valley on imperial lines. The resulting dispute was a minor cause of the Revolution. The Continental Congress took up this claim of the British government, and the first draft of the Articles gave Congress the right of fixing state boundaries. This power was cut out before the Articles were presented to the states for adoption. Maryland, thereupon, in behalf of the landless states, fearing the size and power that its neighbors might attain if their claims were granted, refused to accept the Articles unless the western lands were granted to the central government. In 1781 New York, whose claim was the most dubious, led the way with a cession. Maryland at once accepted the Articles, and negotiations began which ended in cessions by the other states. In 1784 Virginia ceded to the national |