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who succeeded him in his office. He was born in the last ter of the tenth century, and died 1050; hence he was a contemporary of Hai Gaon, Resh Glutha of Babylon, with whom he maintained a correspondence. Although the situation in which he was placed was far from giving him the extensive influence which Hai enjoyed, he much excelled the latter in the amount and value of his literary labors. He composed a commentary on the Pentateuch, which is characterized by a simple and sound style of exegesis, that favorably contrasts with the tendency of similar productions in his day. The independent and philosophic cast of his mind is shown to great advantage in his Talmudic writings. He was the first who composed a distinct work for the elucidation of the Talmud; this he conducted on a plan similar to that afterwards pursued by Isaac Alfez in his commentary. The author declares it as his opinion, that all such Talmudic narrations, as do not admit a natural and reasonable explanation, are to be regarded as mere allegories; and that prophetic visions, giving anthropomorphite views of the Deity, are simply the result of the writers' limited human conceptions. This was an important step; since the literal truth of these legends had hitherto been held indisputable; and the only mode of dealing with them had been either to modify them in part, so as to render them somewhat conformable to reason, or else to neglect them altogether. His ideas did not meet with a favorable reception from the learned of his own age; but in the subsequent one, they were held in the greatest esteem,-so much so that they were followed to a great extent by Isaac Alfez in composing the Halachoth, which, on account of its conciseness and the more favorable position of its author in the literary and influential community of Spain, soon surpassed the work of Isaac in popularity.

Contemporary with Chananel' was Nissim ben Jacob; his father Jacob ben Nissim was chief rabbi in Cairwan before Chushiel, by whom he was succeeded. Chushiel and his son Chananel did not spring from the Arabico-rabbinical school, but first became acquainted with it during their stay in Africa. The case was different with Jacob and his son Nissim. The former had already composed a philosophical commentary on the Talmudic writings, as also on the tracts of Rabbi Eleizer (p), and on the book Jezirah.* The latter composed

*This book, which has not been translated into Hebrew, is to be published for the first time in the original Arabic in

a number of works, in which he endeavored to reconcile the discrepancies of the Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmuds. He was accustomed to write either in a mixture of rabbinical Hebrew and Arabic, or else in pure Arabic. His ethical work alone, which contains a number of Talmudic and Medrashic moral tales, has been translated into Hebrew, and published several times. He enjoyed great esteem and popularity in his day, so much so that he was honored with the title of Gaon, which however he would not consent to bear. He forms the connecting link between Hai Gaon and Samuel Hannasi.

All the writings of this period, although tinged with the more liberal and enlightened principles that were beginning to prevail, exhibit a profound reverence for the traditions contained in the Talmud. This respect for tradition was accompanied by a deep-seated feeling of piety, and by that devoted resignation to the will of God, which results from a full sense of his power and of human frailty and insignificance. But although this excessive self-abasement, originating in the holiest sentiments of our nature, has produced many misguided actions among the votaries of other religions, causing men to desert the sphere of activity allotted them, and convert themselves into monks, hermits and santons of the desert, it had but little effect on the outward conduct of the Jews, notwithstanding the oppressed and humbled condition in which they so long remained. Indeed there are but few of their writings in which any tendency of this sort appears; one such is the ethical work of Bechai ben Joseph, called the Duties of the Heart (), originally written in Arabic, and translated into Hebrew by Abram ben ChasThe Duties of the Heart are so termed by him in contradistinction to those of the body; by the former he understands purity of thought and feeling, and by the latter the observance of commandments. He bitterly complained that no book had yet been written to inculcate those duties of the heart which form the true basis and essence of a pious life. "Heretofore," he says, " the sole endeavor has been to explain the most trifling observances enjoined by the law, and to find out decisions applicable to the most unusual and improbable occurrences; while those things in which true piety and morality mainly consist, have been utterly neglected." He

חבת הלבבות dai, under the title of

the promised Arabico-rabbinical Chrestomathy of M. Munk of Paris. 15

SECOND SERIES, VOL. VI. NO. I.

divides his book into ten chapters, the topics of which are as follows: 1, of the Unity of God; 2, of his Government and Preservation of the Universe; 3, of Resignation to God's Will; 4, of Confidence in God; 5, of Actions performed for God's sake; 6, of Meekness; 7, of Repentance; 8, of Self-examination; 9, of the Renunciation of worldly influences; 10, of Love to God. The spirit which pervades the whole performance clearly shows the influence of the Arabian sages, whose sayings he profusely quotes. The relations between God and man, as exhibited by him, are not those of the loving father and son, but of the gracious master and submissive servant: so that the predominant motive, held out for feelings and acts of piety, is a dread of opposing the will of God; and the most edifying contemplations are declared to be those of his might and majesty. Holding the belief that good actions are of value, only as exhibiting purity of feelings and obedience to the Supreme will, he gives them an Arabic name signifying viatica,-such being the provisions with which one should furnish one's self for his journey to the other world. The idea that the present life is but a state of preparation for that to come, he thus expresses: "This world is as an antechamber, in which thou art to prepare thyself for entering with propriety into the saloon."* It is clear that the doctrines of Bechai might easily have degenerated into those of total seclusion from the world, had not the practical tendency of Judaism effectually opposed such a result. Indeed he himself admits, that although such a religious retirement is not altogether unpraiseworthy, it is opposed to the spirit of the Bible ;† adding, however, that it might still be permitted to some individuals, in order to form a standard of holy living for the rest. Although these doctrines were not fully adopted by the people, their effect must have been highly beneficial, at a period when the Jewish mind was rapidly tending to a gross materialism.

The intellectual advancement of the Jewish nation was next assisted by the labors of the celebrated Abraham ben Maier ben Ezra of Toledo, commonly styled Aben Ezra, in whose voluminous writings the sciences of philology and philosophy, although grounded as usual upon Talmudical learning, reached a much higher point of development than in those of any of his

* העולם הזה דומה לפרזדור (posupor) התקן עצמך לפרזדר כדי שתכנס לסרכלין.

† Chap. IX. § 2, 3, 5.

predecessors. He was descended from one of the most respectable and learned families among the Jews of Spain; and was alike distinguished in his own person for native genius and profound scholarship. Master of both Hebrew and Arabic, he was thoroughly versed in the Talmud and other rabbinical writings, and also in the Aristotelian philosophy then so much in vogue, besides possessing an acquaintance with mathematics and astronomy. His activity of disposition and ardor for inquiry led him to enlarge the bounds of his knowledge of men and things by foreign travel, in preference to remaining at home and occupying a teacher's chair. He thus extended his journeyings eastward to Italy, Greece, Palestine and other Oriental countries, and according to some as far as India; and towards the close of his life he is known to have visited England. He yet found leisure, notwithstanding his migratory course of life, for the composition of numerous works in widely different branches of literature. Among his grammatical writings are those entitled Mosnaim, Zachoth and Sepher Brura; in these he appears as the first scientific investigator of the etymologies of words and of the abnormal forms found in the Bible, with which he manifests a degree of minute familiarity that is truly extraordinary. Many ingenious and successful interpretations are also to be met with in these works; but his exegetical productions are chiefly contained in his commentaries on the Pentateuch and various other parts of the Bible, and in them he exhibits extensive philological knowledge, sound critical judgment, and an uncommon freedom from Talmudical bias. His style is pure and condensed, often abrupt, and occasionally obscure, in consequence of his merely hinting at the ideas he wishes to convey, instead of expressing them at length.

Of the several modes of interpretation adopted by others and himself he speaks as follows: "Some, and especially those rabbies who reside among the Arabs, take occasion to connect the study of biblical interpretation with that of natural history and metaphysics; but every one who desires to become acquainted with these sciences will do better to study them in books that treat of them alone. Others, as the Karaites, seek to explain all these matters from the Bible, and to establish them upon what is there contained. A third class, the Cabbalists, grope in total darkness, thinking to discover symbols in every part of the Law; the errors of these men scarcely deserve a serious refutation, although in one respect they are right, viz. in asserting that all laws

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are to be weighed in the balance of reason,-for in every heart is a mind which is a reflection of God's spirit, and when this is opposed to the literal acceptation of Scripture, a deeper meaning is to be looked for, reason being the messenger between God and man. If, however, the plain interpretation of a passage be not opposed to reason, why should we seek for any other? Notwithstanding, there are phrases which contain both a literal and an allegorical meaning, as for instance the terms circumcision,' the tree of knowledge,' etc. A fourth class explain every thing according to the Agada,* without regard to the laws of grammar; but what purpose is served by repeating the often contradictory views that have already been detailed in so many Talmudic writings? Some of these Agadic explanations have indeed a deeper meaning than appears on the surface; but the majority of them are designed merely as an agreeable relaxation for the mind when wearied by the study of the Halacha. A fifth mode is that followed by myself: this is, first to determine the grammatical sense of a passage; next to consult the Chaldee version of Onkelos, although this, especially in the poetical portions, often departs from the simple meaning; and for the legislative books of the Bible I call in the aid of tradition."‡

As might be expected, from the views of interpretation here given, we find the commentaries of Aben Ezra full of sound judgment and acute criticism; his bold and original mind often spurning the beaten track pursued by the rabbies his predecessors, although not able to escape from their influence altogether. Indeed there seems to have been a constant struggle going on in his mind, between the deep-rooted impressions of childhood and the more enlarged views and correct opinions obtained by

* The Agada is that portion of the Talmud which consists of narrations, sayings and allegorical illustrations; while the Halacha comprises the discussions and decisions that have been made on the traditional laws.

Sentiments similar to these are expressed in the preface to his Commentary on Lamentations. "The Agadic explanations," he says, "are of various kinds; some to elevate and refresh the mind, and some to furnish food for the weaker intellects so that the literal sense of a verse is to be likened to the body, and its Agadic illustration to the dress, which is sometimes of fine silk, and at other times of sackloth."

Pref. to Com. on Genesis.

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