are merely natural. The argument for restoration is therefore left by the Scriptures very doubtful. The consideration of the question will be resumed, § § 157, 158. [However hesitating and undecided the theologians of the Lutheran church may be with regard to the endless punishment of the fallen angels, the doctrinal standards of their church express no doubts; and the Augsburg Confession (Art. XVII.) expressly condemns those," qui sentiunt,hominibus damnatis ac DIABOLIS finem poenarum futurum esse." Neander suggests, that the doctrine of the final and perfect restoration of all things (αποκατάστασις πάντων) which is ascribed to Origen as its author, was the result of the principles of the Alexandrine Gnosis, and was abandoned by him at a later period of his life; Allg. Kirchengesch. B. I. Abth. 3, S. 1098. TR.]

III. Number and classes of evil spirits.

They have a lead

The New Testament gives us no definite information with respect to the number of evil spirits; but they were supposed by the Jews to be very many (Luke 8. 30), and indeed are often mentioned in the New Testament in the plural. We are likewise informed, that evil spirits compose a kingdom and exist in a social relation; and hence the phrase aoihela rov Zarava, Matt. 12: 26. This representation must be understood in the same same way as that in reference to good angels; vid. § 61, II. er, prince, or commander (o άozov tuv daμoviov, Matt. 12: 24), represented often as a fallen arch-angel, and called Beelzebub (vid. No. IV.), also, by way of eminence, diáßolos, Zaravãs, x. t. 2. In Rev. 12: 7, 9, in opposition to the good angels, who fought on the side of Michael, the angels of Satan are called oi ayyelos avtov. The names Devil and Satan are not used in the Bible in the plural, and are applied only to the ἄρχων τῶν δαιμονίων. Ιt is not, therefore, according to scriptural usage to speak of devils, in the plural.

IV. Names of evil spirits.

Respecting the title evil angel, vid. § 59, V. [Cf. Bretschneider, Handbuch, B. I. S. 627. Hahn, Glaubenslehre, S. 294, Anm.] 1. General appellations of evil spirits as a body. (a) IIvεvμαza anádapra, i. e. morally impure and evil; Luke 11: 24, et passim. Synonymous with this is (b) vεvuara пovnoά, Luke 7:21. Eph. 6: 12, τὰ πνευματικὰ τῆς πονηρίας. (c) Δαίμονες οι δαιμόνια. The etymology of this word is quite uncertain. In Homer and all the most ancient Grecian writers, it means neither more nor less than gods (roi). And although in process of time it acquired various

NAMES OF EVIL SPIRITS.

461

additional meanings, it always retained this. It is accordingly used by the LXX. to denote the heathen gods (,), and also in 1 Cor. 10: 20, 21, and Rev. 9: 20, where datuóvia and idola are connected. It was very commonly used in this sense by the Attic writers; and so, when Paul was at Athens (Acts 17: 18), some believed that he wished to introduce va dayuóvia, foreign deities.—But the name daiμoves was afterwards given by the Greeks to those invisible beings whom they supposed, in connexion with their deities, to exert an agency in the world. Hence Sάuovas is the name given by Pythagoras, Plato, and others, to the human soul even when connected with the body, but especially when separated from it. The intermediate spirits between God and our race, deified men, and heroes were also called demons. And lastly, the internal spring, impulse, the foreboding or presentiment of the mind, which appeared so inexplicable to Socrates, and which he therefore personified and deified, was called by him his dauóviov. -Whenever this invisible agent was the cause of good to men, it was called αγαθοδαίμων οι εὐδαίμων; and when the cause of evil, κακοδαίμων. Αt the time of Christ and the apostles, δαίμων was a common appellation given by the Grecian Jews to evil spirits,those morally so, and indeed by the Apocryphal writers also; vid. Tob. 3: 8, лоvηgov datμóviov. In the Evangelists, the phrases πνεύματα ἀκάθαρτα and πονηρά are interchanged, times without number, with δαίμονες and πνεῦμα δαιμονίου ἀκαθάρτου. In Matt. 12: 24, Saíuoves are distinctly mentioned as belonging to the kingdom of the Devil. The woman who is described in Luke 13: 11, as πνεῦμα ἔχουσα ασθενείας, is said, v. 16, to be one ἣν ἔδησεν ó Zaravas vid. § 64, I. 2. The opinion of Farmer, therefore, in his "Essay on Demoniacs," that other spirits,-gods, departed souls, etc., and not devils were intended in the New Testament by this appellation, is unfounded. In James 2: 19, dauóvia has clearly the signification above given.-But how came daiμoves to have this peculiar signification among the Grecian Jews? The LXX. usually rendered the Hebrew words which signify idols by the word daiμoves, and the Greeks called their gods by this name. Now the Jews connected with this name their idea, that evil spirits ruled in the heathen world, and caused themselves to be worshiped as gods, under the names of Jupiter, Mercury, etc., and had seduced the heathen into this idolatry. Hence daiμoves and evil spirits came to be regarded by them as synonymous terms.

2. But one of the evil spirits is represented as their prince, leader, commander; vid. No. III., and Morus, p. 91, § 10. He is called by various names. (a) Satan, 7, oaravas, literally enemy, fiend, accuser, Ps. 109: 6. Job 11 (§ 58), Matt. 16: 23, and hence, by way of eminence, princeps dæmonum, because he is represented as the greatest enemy of man, and of the kingdom of truth and holiness.-Synonymous with this title are the names o 900s and ó ávτíðixos. (b) ‘O novηoós, malignus, noxius, the foe of man. This name is frequently given him by John; as 1 John 2: 13, 14. (c) Auάßolos is the most common Grecian name of the Devil; and from this word our Devil, and the German Teufel are derived. It signifies fiend, destroyer of peace, calumniator. The LXX. rendered the Hebrew by diapolos, Job 1: 6. Ps. 109: 6. This name was sometimes applied to men, 1 Tim. 3: 11. Tit. 2: 3. (d) Belial or Beλiag, 2 Cor. 6: 15, from, compounded of

, not, and by, high, i. e. low, abject. It has different senses. In the Old Testament it sometimes signified the under world, the kingdom of the dead, Ps. 18: 5; and sometimes unworthy men, abject principles, Deut. 13: 13. After the Babylonian exile it was frequently used as the name of the Devil, and occurs once in this sense in the New Testament, 2 Cor. 6: 15, "What concord hath Christ with Belial ?" i. e. How can the worship of Christ consist with the worship of the Devil (idolatry) 1 (ε) Βεελζεβούβ οι Βεελζεβούλ, who is expressly called, dozor rav dauorior, Matt. 12:24. This was an appellation very common among the Jews at the time of Christ. In 2 Kings 1: 2, Beelzebub appears as a god of the Philistines. The name when written with final ẞ, is derived from b

7. It most probably means, God of the flies, Fly-Baal, Deus averruncus muscarum, whose office it was to protect his worshipers from the flies, which were among the greatest plagues of Egypt and Philistia. [It corresponds with the Greek Zeus aлóμvios.] According to the later Jews, it means dominus criminationis, accuscr, complainant, and is synonymous with διάβολος and Σατανᾶς, from the Syriac 227, which signifies criminari. The other form, Bεεßou, is derived from baby, and is either an intentional alteration of the word into an epithet of disgrace, and so signifies deus stercoris (Mistgott), from 1, stercus; or signifies, deus or præfectus sepulcri (as 17 signifies in Chaldaic and Syriac), dominus inferni, or inferorum, ó zoáros ¿z☎v rov davárov, Heb. 2: 14.

64. EMPLOYMENTS OF EVIL SPIRITS.

463 It was at first then the name of the angel of death, and afterwards of the Devil, when he was supposed to be the same person. (f) O doάzwv o μéyas, and ó öqis o dozatos, Rev. 12: 9, 13. This appellation might have been given to him from his general character for cunning and deceit (δ πλανῶν τὴν οἰκουμένην). But the word doxaños evidently alludes to Gen. III., since the agency of the Devil in the occurrence there described was doubtless believed by the Jews at the time of Christ.

3. The Jews gave particular names to evil, as well as to 'good spirits. Among these is 'Aouodaios, Asmodi, mentioned in the book of Tobias, 3: 8, also Samaël, Azazel, etc. But none of these proper names of evil spirits occur in the New Testament, unless the name of the angel of destruction, 'Αβαδδών, i. q. Απολλύων,--ó äɣɣelos τns aßvooov, Rev. 9: 11, be considered as such.

$64. Of the employments and the effects of evil spirits.

I. Objections to the common theory.

The power of Satan, and his influence upon men, were formerly stated in a very exaggerated manner, and represented as excessively great and fearful; and this view was the more plausible, as it seemed to be supported by many passages in the New Testament. But this mistake would have been avoided, if the true spirit of the Bible had been more justly apprehended, and the true meaning of its language better understood; vid. No. II. According to the common theory, evil spirits were supposed to be actively employed, at their own pleasure, all over the earth,-to have immediate influence on the souls of men,-to inspire wicked thoughts, doubts, and anxieties, to intrude themselves into all societies and mysteries, and to rule in the air, and over the whole material world. Such are the opinions which formerly prevailed to a great extent, and which are often found in the older ecclesiastical writers. They were long preserved, and transmitted from one age to another, with more or less of exaggeration. And many theologians of the Protestant church even in the sixteenth century, held opinions on this subject, which were more conformed to the prevailing superstitious ideas

of that age, than to reason or Scripture. Luther and Melancthon were inclined to the belief, that good and evil spirits were at all times present in the world, and stood in a very intimate relation to men. In the Symbols of the Lutheran church, however, the connexion of superior spirits with the world is not very minutely determined, and the doctrine of demons is exhibited in the general biblical phraseology. Thus in the Augsburg Confession many texts of Scripture are cited; but no definite meaning is affixed to them.— Many of the ideas formerly prevalent on this subject are either wholly without foundation, or are carried beyond the bounds of truth; for,

1. It is contradictory to the ideas of the power, wisdom, holiness, and goodness of God which we derive from the Bible and from reason, to ascribe to the Devil such vast, and almost infinite power. Nor can we see any rational way of accounting for it, that God should permit so great and injurious an influence to be exerted in the world.

2. The opinion maintained by some, that evil spirits can produce wicked thoughts in the minds of men by an immediate influence, is incapable of proof. The evil influences exerted on the human mind have by some been supposed to be as immediate and efficient as the divine influences; and as God infuses good thoughts, as he inspired prophets and apostles, so does Satan, it is supposed, directly infuse evil thoughts into the minds of the wicked, and into the minds of the good also, when he is permitted so to do by God. That these inspirations of the Devil can be distinguished by any certain signs from thoughts and desires which arise in the mind from other sources, is not pretended; this opinion therefore cannot be established by experience; and certainly it cannot be derived from Scripture; at least the opinion, that evil spirits do always or commonly exert an immediate influence of this kind, cannot be proved from the Bible.

3. This theory, when carried to the length to which it has sometimes been carried, is inconsistent with human freedom. If the agency of Satan was of the nature often believed, man would not be the agent of the wicked actions he seems to perform, but merely the instrument of the irresistible influence of Satan; and thus an excuse for sin would be furnished.

4. In many texts in the New Testament in which the common origin of particular sins is described, Satan is not mentioned; but