have declared their opinion, that the question is not altogether settled, and that there remains something to be said upon the other side. In the English church, the opinion of Semler has found many advocates, among whom Hugo, Farmer, the author of an es say on Demoniacs, is distinguished.-In the Romish church, the old doctrine, that the so called demoniacs of the New Testament were really possessed of devils, and that these possessions were not confined to that particular age, remained the common and profess. ed belief during the greatest part of the eighteenth century. But during the last few years, many of the theologians even of this church have come over to the opinions prevailing among Protestants. -The interest in this subject was revived in the Protestant and Catholic churches in Germany by the practices of the celebrated conjurers Schröpfer and Gessner, who appeared in the latter half of the eighteenth century. As the difference of opinion was very great (some Protestant theologians, e. g. Crusius and Lavater, maintaining not only that there might possibly be possessions and conjurations at the present day, but that such were sometimes actually known), many works were written on both sides of the question. The result of this discussion in the minds of the more unprejudiced and moderate, was, that although God, for particular reasons, and for the sake of certain ends, might formerly have permitted demoniacal possessions, there is no proof that there are any such at the present day; and there are no infallible signs, by which these alleged possessions can be certainly distinguished, at the present day, from diseases merely natural.

III. Remarks on the possessions recorded in the New Testament.

1. The common opinion at the present time, is, that all these disorders are to be explained by merely natural causes; and that when Jesus and the apostles attributed them to the influence of evil spirits, they spoke in accommodation to the prevailing error of their contemporaries. The ancients, it is said, from their want of pathological science, referred many diseases which were purely natural, to demoniacal influence; and this was the case with regard to the diseases mentioned in the New Testament. Christ and his apostles did not appear in the character of theoretic physicians, and were not required by their calling to give instruction concerning the true causes of human diseases. Such is the reasoning often employed

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at the present day; and in this way do some attempt to escape from difficulties, and to free Christ from the charge of entertaining the superstitious opinions of his countrymen; but as we shall see hereafter, they thus involve themselves in greater difficulties than they attempt to escape. The question respecting the reality of the possessions recorded in the New Testament, is at least open to discussion, and cannot be decided in that authoritative and peremptory tone which has of late sometimes been assumed. That demoniacal possessions are impossible cannot be proved; nor can it be shown from the fact of there being none at the present time, that there never were any. A disease, e. g. epilepsy, which may be owing at one time to a natural cause, may at another be produced by the agency of an evil spirit; nor can the opposite of this be proved. It is also possible, that divine Providence may have suffered in a former period for the attainment of particular ends, what it no longer permits, now that those ends are obtained; vid. No. 3.

2. There are, indeed, difficulties attending the doctrine of demoniacal possessions, and many things about it are dark and inexplicable. But great as these difficulties may be, those which follow from rejecting this doctrine, are still greater. They who deny the reality of demoniacal possessions will find it difficult either to maintain the authority of Christ as a teacher, especially as a divine teacher, and the highest ambassador from God to man, which he always affirmed himself to be; or even to vindicate his moral character. This subject is commonly treated at the present day in altogether too partial a manner; and I regard it as the duty of the Christian theologian, arising especially from the wants of the age in which we live, boldly to resist all such partial views in matters of religion, not concerned as to the judgment which may be formed of him by the multitude, if he can but succeed in gaining the minds of the more candid and enlightened, which, he may depend, will sooner or later be found on the side of truth.-In reference to this subject, two things are perfectly undeniable, viz. (a) that Jesus himself spoke of these diseases as effects produced by evil spirits, and never gave the remotest occasion to suppose, that he believed they were any thing else, not even in his more confidential discourses with his disciples, nor in those cases in which he would have found it necessary to contradict the prevailing opinion, if it had been different from his own, Matt. 8: 28-32. 17: 19, 21. Luke 10: 17-21. Matt. 12: 28,

acal agency. Cf. loc. supra cit. and John 16: 11. 1 John 3:8, and those cited § 64. The permission of these possessions, therefore, secured an important moral end, which could not be as well secured in any other way, at that particular age of the world. (d) In no other way could the great object for which Christ came into the world, and to which he so often alludes, be so strongly represented, or so deeply impressed, as by these facts, falling under the cognizance of the senses. The mere teaching of this religion, unaccompanied by any such facts, would have produced on hearers like his, a feeble impression, compared with that made by those wonderful works, which proved both the teacher and his doctrine to be divine. Facts produce always a greater effect upon men, than abstract instruction; and hence God so frequently employs them, as we see both from the Bible and from experience, in the instruction which he gives to men, at least makes use of them to render the instruction he has otherwise imparted, more impressive and certain.

$66. Of magic and spectres.

I. Of magic.

1. We shall here present some historical observations on the subject of magic, and then some conclusions drawn from them; for nothing more is necessary for the refutation of magic, than that it be exposed to the light of history. The existence of spiritual agents, either friendly or hostile to our race, is here presupposed; and magic is founded on the belief of their influence, and secret and invisible power. Wherever this secret, invisible power of superior spirits is granted to men, there is a foundation for magic, whatever may be the nature of the spirits by whom it is granted, whether they are gods, or angels, or demons, or of some other denomination. The many erroneous conceptions of ignorant and uncultivated men with respect to the influence of these spirits, and the custom of ascribing to their agency every thing which cannot be easily explained on natural principles,-these, with other things, furnish a sufficient ground for the propensity to magic which is seen among so many persons and in so many nations. This superstition has indeed appeared in different forms among different people; but as they all

proceed from the same general ideas, they bear a strong resemblance to each other in all their diversities, and agree in the means which they prescribe to propitiate or appease these superior spirits, or to avert the threatened evil.-Magic, in its largest sense, is the art of performing something which surpasses the natural powers of men, by the aid of superior spirits. And the less general cultivation one has, the less knowledge he possesses of the powers of nature and their effects; the more inclined will he be to magic, and to all kinds of superstition which relate to the natural world.-The question has sometimes been asked, in what nation was magic first practised, and who was its first inventor or teacher? And in answer to these questions, the Chaldeans and Persians have been mentioned. Sine dubio, says Pliny (XXX. 1), orta in Perside à Zoroastre, ut inter auctores constat. But this inquiry is useless; since magic is practised by all savage nations, and they would be led to it naturally by the superstitious ideas abovementioned; and need not be supposed therefore to have derived it from other sources; vid. Tiedemann, De Magia, Marburg, 1787.

When rude and uncultivated man wishes in any way to better his condition, or to accomplish what appears to him difficult or impossible, he resorts to magic, or the aid of spirits. (a) Those who wished to be rich, or prosperous, to live comfortably, to regain their own health, or to procure health for others, were accustomed to resort to supernatural assistance,-to magic medicines, cures effected by incantation, alchymy, philtres, etc. The more mysterious, dark, and enigmatical the means prescribed by this art, the more welcome were they, and the more efficacious were they believed to be. Even the effects produced by the natural virtues of herbs, medicines, etc., were ascribed by some to the influence of spirits; hence, Pliny says (XXX. 1), Natam primum (magiam) e medicina nemo dubitat, ac specie salutari irrepsisse velut altiorem sanctioremque medicinam. (b) Those who wished secretly to injure others, or to be revenged upon them, were wont to employ various herbs, roots, or formulas of speech, for the purpose of bewitching or enchanting the objects of their dislike; and, on the other hand, resorted to amulets, charms, etc. when they wished to repel the injury to themselves from like practices in others. Real injury has been done in magical practices by the use of actual poisons, though the operation even of these is ascribed by many to

spirits. Hence, veneficium (qaquaxɛía) signifies both the mingling of poison, and sorcery. So Pliny (XXX. 2), Habet (magia) quasdam veritatis umbras; sed in his veneficia artes pollent, non magica. (d) Those who wished to acquire the knowledge of things unknown to them (e. g. who their enemies were, who stood in the way of their success, who had stolen their property, etc.); or who wished to learn their future destiny, supposed that by consulting spirits they could best obtain the desired information. Pliny, in the passage above cited, says "Nullo (homine) non avido futura de se sciendi, atque de coelo verissime peti credente." Hence divination, dreams, and apparitions, have always been among the instruments of which the magician has availed himself.

Among men entertaining the superstitious opinions here described, the supposed confidant of superior spirits would naturally command respect and influence. These magicians (for so those were called who were supposed to possess familiar spirits), were sometimes impostors, sometimes themselves deluded, sometimes both at once. The various practices to which they resorted in ancient and modern times, may be easily explained from what has already been said. The most common are the following: viz. fascination by evil glances, by words, prayers, incantations (carmina, formulas which were sung), Eccl. 10: 11. Ps. 58: 5, 6. Hom. Odys. de Circe. Virgil, Ecl. VIII. 69, sq. Æn. IV. 487, sq.-Necromancy, the art of obtaining the secrets of the future by conjuring up the dead; Homer, Odys. XI.,-a very common practice in the east, and among the Hebrews who were addicted to idolatry. A male practitioner of this art among the Hebrews was called, aix, and a female, (for it was practised by females,) inhye, a woman who has a spirit of necromancy; in the plural, niais, sorceresses; Lev. 20: 27. Is. 29: 4. Of this class was the witch of Endor whom Saul consulted, 1 Sam. xxviii, Cf. Is. 8: 19.-Enchantment by magic herbs, ointments, medicines, and different means of exciting the feelings and passions.

But the belief in the connexion between wicked men and evil spirits or malignant deities, and the injury to others which wizards of this description could do with the assistance afforded them, has been more frightful in its consequences than any other. The magical practices of such men were called by the Arabians the black art, in distinction from what was done by those who had connexion