against it in order to avoid, as much as possible, being exposed to annoyance from the defenders of the neighbouring works. It is true that the smallness of the towers rendered it impossible for the enemy to be wholly concealed at their front; but the desire of entirely depriving the enemy of the benefit arising from the undefended nature of that ground probably induced engineers to dispose the faces of their towers like those of a modern bastion, so that two of them might form a projecting angle, whose vertex was on the capital. There is no reason to believe that any material change took place in the manner of constructing the towers of fortresses during all the long period in which the ancient arms were employed; but it is easy to conceive that the invention of fire-arms would render it necessary to enlarge the tower for the purpose of receiving the guns, and to increase the thickness of the rampart, that it might be able as well to resist the concussion produced by the discharge of the ordnance placed upon it, as the shock of the enemy's artillery when fired against it. On this account, also, the ramparts were constructed of earth, and their exterior surface was formed at such an inclination to the ground as would enable it to stand unsupported, except where it became necessary to prevent an escalade; in which case a facing of stone, brick, or timber was made sufficiently high and steep to create a serious impediment to any attempt of that nature. An opinion that the bastions are the weakest parts of a fortress remained in force, however, long after the modern artillery was introduced in sieges. On this account they were at first made very small, when compared with the extent of the wall between them; and the line of each face, when produced towards the town, was made to intersect that wall, in order that the fire from the part intercepted between this produced line and the flank of the next bastion might co-operate with the fire from the latter in defending the ditch in front of the former bastion. But when the ramparts of a town were found to disappear almost instantly under the weight of shot discharged from large ordnance, it became necessary to employ ordnance of corresponding size on the walls; and the dimensions of the bastions were finally augmented to those at present assigned. The lengths of the faces vary from 100 to 120 yards, and the flanks are usually about 50 yards long; but the magnitude of the projecting angle in front, called the salient or flanked angle, to distinguish it from the angles formed by the faces and flanks which are denominated shoulder angles, evidently depends upon the angle of the polygon on which the enceinte is constructed. Each face of a bastion, if produced towards the town, now falls at the interior extremity of the flank of the collateral bastion, so that the flank defence of the faces of a bastion depends wholly upon the fire from the flanks of those on its right and left. It is to Italy that we must look for the invention of the modern bastion: the wars which raged in that country from the commencement of the 12th century, and which were more systematically conducted there than in any other part of Europe, gave rise to this, as well as to many other inventions for military purposes. The precise date of its first formation is quite unknown; but if we omit the improbable story related by Folard, that the Turkish commander, Achmet Pacha, caused bastions to be constructed about Otranto, when he took that place in 1480, we may observe that it is spoken of under the name of Balvardo, as an improvement of great importance in the military art, by Tartaglia, in his 'Quesiti ed inventi diversi,' which was published in 1546; and in the same work is given a plan of the fortifications of Turin, which exhibits a bastion at each of the four angles of the rampart. Both Vasari, in his 'Lives of the Architects,' and Maffei, in his Verona Illustrata,' ascribe the invention to San Michali of Verona: one of the bastions of this city has on it the date 1527, and its construction is still ascribed to that engineer, who, in fact, was about that time employed in the erection or repair of several of the fortresses in Italy. From the word Balvardo, denoting a strong hold, the earliest French engineers gave to this work the appellation of Boulevard; and such is its designation in the treatise of Errard, which was published in 1594. The term Bastion appears to have been taken from the Italian writers, for Maggi, in his treatise 'Della Fortificatione delle Citta,' applies the term Bastioni to redoubts constructed of earth; and, according to Père Daniel, the French subsequently gave to such works the name of Bastilles, or Bastides. Froissart also uses these terms in speaking of the forts constructed during the siege of Ventadour by the Duc de Berri, under Charles VI. It should be remarked, however, that Errard applies the name of Bastion indifferently to works in the situation of those now so called, and to those to which the name of Ravelin is generally given; and doubtless it denoted originally any work of earth constructed on the exterior of one more ancient. It appears that it had been the practice from the earliest times to form a rampart, or bank of earth, in front of the walls of fortresses, in order to secure the latter from the destructive effects of the ram; and it is easy to conceive that, by forming such a bank in front of the old towers of a place, so as to connect those previously existing in front of the adjacent curtains, the work would assume a figure like that of a modern bastion; and indeed would very much resemble one of the detached bastions in what is called the second system of Vauban; the original tower of the fortress occupying the place of the interior bastion of that system, and constituting a sort of retrenchment to the new work. The construction was proposed by Castriotto, in his elaborate work published at Venice in 1564, seemingly as if it had been his own idea; but probably he meant only to recommend the adoption of a kind of work which must have been then a novelty. The Italian engineers, immediately after the invention of the bastion system of fortification, became celebrated for their skill in military architecture, and they seem to have been extensively employed in the construction or repair of fortresses beyond the Alps: one of the first of their labours in the north of Europe was the fortification of Landreci, with bastions, for Francis I.; and the like works were executed about New Hesdin, on the frontiers of Artois, for Charles V. In 1568, the Duke of Alva employed Pacciotto in the construction of the citadel of Antwerp, a regular fortress, whose bastions still exist within those subsequently erected at that place; and, during the reign of Elizabeth, Genebella was brought from Flanders to this country in order to superintend the formation of a bastioned enceinte about the ancient castle of Carisbrook, in the Isle of Wight. Albert Dürer, the celebrated engraver, proposed, in 1527, to fortify places with circular towers only, like those of the ancients, but of larger dimensions; and in most of the plans published during the 16th century by Italian engineers, there appears to be a union of the old and new methods; for the angles of the polygons are furnished with round towers, and these are protected exteriorly by bastions. The guns mounted on the flanks of a bastion, by firing along the ditch in front of the curtain and of the neighbouring bastions, created a serious impediment to the passage of the enemy across the ditch in attempting an assault, and it became necessary for him to silence that fire by a battery placed for the purpose in the direction of the ditch; but the establishment of this battery necessarily compelled the defenders to augment the number of guns in their bastions. To get room for these guns, engineers were induced to form their bastions with a double and even a triple flank on each side, the flanks receding from each other, from below upwards, in the manner of terraces, towards the interior of the bastion; and, to prevent the enemy from dismounting the guns in the lower flanks by other batteries raised in the prolongations of those flanks, it became necessary to mask them by extending the rampart of the face beyond them, and giving it a return towards the curtain; this return was frequently rectilinear, but generally in the form of an arc of a circle, like a portion of a round tower, and the projection with its return received the name of orecchione or orillon. Besides masking the lower flanks from the effect of any enfilading, or lateral fire, it concealed one or more guns on the upper flank from the fire of an enemy's battery directly opposed to that flank, while it permitted those guns to defend the main ditch and the breach made by the enemy in face of the collateral bastion. In Castriotto's work above mentioned he describes bastions with triple flanks and cavaliers, and orillons, similar to those of Coehorn; also many other works supposed to be modern improvements, such as chemin des rondes. [BERME]. COUNTERMINES, CASEMATES, COUNTERARCHED Revetments, and the FAUSSE BRAY. The desire of avoiding the exposure of the flanks of the bastions gave rise to the practice of making them form a right, and even an acute angle with the curtain; but a better judgment subsequently rejected this disposition, as the musketry fire from the defenders of the flank was thereby liable to injure the men stationed on the curtain. The lower flanks also were eventually suppressed, because they contracted too much the interior of the bastion to which they belonged; and because the enemy's fire, soon destroying the parapets of those above, masses of brickwork fell among the defenders below, and obliged them to quit their guns at the very time that their service was most required. The orillons, moreover, are now considered useless, as they contract the length of the flank; and the guns which they protect from a fire in their front are liable to be dismounted by a fire from their rear. In what are called the second and third systems of Vauban, the principal bastions are detached from the enceinte by a ditch in their rear, and consequently the capture of those works would not immediately compel the surrender of the fortress. In these systems, a small bastion of brickwork, closed by a parapet-wall at its gorge, is constructed at each of the angles formed by the polygonal wall surrounding the place. The fire from the parapets of these tower bastions, as they are called, would have a powerful effect in preventing the enemy, after he has breached and stormed the great bastions, from erecting batteries in them to destroy the interior walls; and, in order to preserve the artillery of their flanks uninjured till the end of the siege, engineers placed it in casemates [CASEMATE], whence the guns might pour a destructive fire upon the assailants when crossing the ditch of the enceinte. In one of the systems of Cochorn, each principal bastion is attached to the enceinte, and contains an interior one for the purpose of prolonging its defence. At the shoulders of the former are constructed towers of masonry, serving as orillons, and containing galleries whose front walls are pierced with loop-holes, to allow a fire to be directed along the interval between the parallel faces of the two bastions. Bastions are now made either solid or hollow: that is, either the interior is filled with earth up to the level of the platforms of the guns, or it is left coincident with that of the natural ground. Of the two methods, the former is generally preferred, because it affords some facilities for the formation and defence of interior parapets or retrenchments. In almost every system of fortification the ramparts of the faces and flanks of bastions have been made rectilinear on the plan; a few cases however occur in which the flanks have been curved, with their convexity towards the interior of the work. This seems to have been devised to allow room for a few more men to fire over their parapets than a straight wall could afford, and to prevent the distant batteries of the enemy from easily dismounting their artillery by firing along the interior side of the parapet. On some occasions these advantages may be worth obtaining, but as the soldier placed behind a parapet always fires nearly in a direction perpendicular to its length, it is evident that the curved flank may cause the lines of fire to tend towards the right or left of the main ditch, and thus endanger the safety of the defenders stationed in the neighbouring works. The desire of lessening the effect of what is called the enfilading fire, or that which an enemy may direct along the interior side of any parapet, has led Bousmard to give a small curvature to the faces of his bastions, the concave part being towards the interior; but it is evident that, by this construction, the lines of fire directed from the collateral flank for the defence of the face, instead of grazing the latter in its whole length, can only be tangents to the curve, each line of fire meeting it in but one point. It is therefore probable that the injury inflicted on the enemy would be found so much less than that arising from the usual construction, as to neutralise entirely the advantage of the diminished enfilade fire of the enemy. The destructive effect of this last mode of firing would be most effectually prevented by the formation of semicircular bastions, detached from the enceinte, in the manner proposed by Mr. Bordwine; but the ingenious author of that system is in consequence compelled to abandon, in a great, measure, the advantage of having the exterior of his walls well defended from those which are in collateral situations. The batteries however which he proposes to raise in the interior of his at the angle, A, of the polygon, according to the method of the first | Italian and French engineers, with an orillon and triple flank. The pentagonal figure about B is the plan of a modern bastion, of which the Fig. 3. part on the left of the capital B E represents what is called a hollow, and that on the right a solid bastion. An imaginary line from f to g is the gorge, and the rampart, e f, is the curtain joining the right flank of one bastion to the left of the next. The space, F GE, is the main ditch; and II and K are respectively the positions of a counter and enfilading battery which might be constructed by the enemy to silence the fires from the triple flank of D. The outworks, P, G, Q, R, S, [TENAILLE, CAPONNIERE, RAVELIN, COVERED-WAY, and GLACIS] will be described under those words. Fig. 2 represents a section supposed to be made from B to L, perpendicularly across the rampart on the left face of B, and the main ditch in its front. M and N are sections through the revetments, or walls which support the earth on the sides of the ditch. In fig. 3, v represents the plan of a detached bastion; r is a tower bastion at an angle of the polygon which surrounds the place. The bastioned systems will be further treated under FORTIFICATION. (Vitruvius, De Architectura; Maggi, Della Fortificatione delle Citta; Errard, La Fortification réduite en art; De Ville, L'Ingénieur Parfait; Vauban, Euvres Militaires, par Foissac; Belidor, La Science de l'Ingénieur; Fritach, L'Architecture Militaire; Cormontaigne, Euvres Posthumes; Montalembert, La Fortification Perpendiculaire; Bousmard, Essai Géneral de Fortification; St. Paul, Traité Complet de Fortification; Savart, Cours Elémentaire de Fortification; Mandar, De l'Architecture des Forteresses; Dufour, De la Fortification Permanente; Carnot, De la Défense des Places Fortes; Col. Pasley, Course of Elementary Fortification; Malortie, Permanent Fortification; Capt. Straith, A Treatise on Fortification. BA'TAVI, or BATA'VI (the forms Vatavi, Badai, and Betavi also occur in MSS. inscriptions), the name of the ancient inhabitants of South Holland, and some adjacent parts. The Batavi were a Germanic tribe of the race of the Catti, who, some time before the age of Cæsar, left their native district, and settled, according to Tacitus (Hist.' iv. 12, Germ.' 129), "on the extreme borders of Gaul, such as they found destitute of inhabitants," but chiefly on an island formed by the northern arm of the Rhine (or Rhine of Leyden), the Vahalis, or Waal, and the Mosa or Maas after their junction, and the ocean; which island now constitutes part of the province of South Holland. The first mention of them is by Cæsar (De Bell. Gall.' iv. 10), who calls their country by the name of Insula Batavorum, and appears to consider it as belonging to Germany, and not to Gaul; the limits of Belgic Gaul on that side being placed at the southern branch of the Rhine, or Waal, after its junction with the Mosa, or Maas. Cæsar did not carry the war into the country of the Batavi. Under Augustus the Batavi became allies of the Romans; they were exempted from taxes, and they furnished cavalry to the Roman armies on the Lower Rhine and in Britain, where detachments of them long continued to be stationed. Drusus, the brother of Tiberius, resided for a time among them, and dug a canal, Fossa Drusiana, which connected the Rhine with the modern Yssel. Besides the Batavi there was another people on the same island, probably in its north-western extremity, called by the Roman historians Canninefates. They were of the same origin as the Batavi (Tacitus, Hist.' iv. 15), but not so numerous, and their name became gradually lost in that of the larger tribe. Tacitus speaks highly of the bravery of both these tribes, and "for Germans" of their mental capacity. beyond the Maas. After this the Insula Batavorum formed part of the country called Fresia, which, in the time of the Merovingians, extended southward as far as the Scheldt. Under Charlemagne it formed a duchy bearing allegiance to the empire, "Ducatus Fresia usque ad Mosam." It afterwards became divided into Western Frisia, called Fresia Hæreditaria, which was subject to hereditary counts; and Eastern Frisia, or Fresia Libera, which remained independent. The Yssel formed the division between the two. About the 11th century we first find Western Fresia called by the name of Holland, some say from hohl land," a low hollow land," and its counts took the name of Counts of Holland. The country of the ancient Batavi formed the southern part of their dominions; but the islands at the mouth of the Maas, and between it and the Scheldt, were the subject of frequent contentions and wars between them and the Counts of Flanders. (D'Anville, Etats formés en Europe après la Chûte de l'Empire Romain;' Meyer, 'Res Flandricæ.') Although the name Batavi has fallen into disuse, it has always been employed by modern authors writing in Latin, to signify the Dutch or Hollanders generally. BATH, a place for the purpose of washing the body, either with hot, warm, or cold water: the word is derived from the Saxon bað. The Greek name is balaneion (Baλavetov), of which the Roman balineum, or balneum, is only a slight variation: the elements bal and bad in the Greek and English words are evidently related. The public baths of the Romans were generally called Therma, which literally means warm waters." " The bath was also in common use among the Greeks, though we are not well acquainted with the construction and economy of their bathing-places. Homer often refers to the practice of bathing, but he this view of the effeminacy of warm bathing was that held in the time of Demosthenes (Polyc.) At Athens there were both private and public baths: the public baths appear to have been the property of individuals, who kept them for their own profit or let them to others. (See Isæus, 'On the Inheritance of Dicæogenes,' cap. vi.; ditto of Philoctemon,' cap. vi.) Lucian, in his 'Hippias' (vol. iii. ed. Hemsterh.), has given a description of a magnificent bath. Though he does not tell us whether it was built in the Roman or the Greek style, we may safely conclude that he is speaking of a bath in a Greek city. His description is not precise enough to render it certain that this bath in its details agrees with those of Rome and Pompeii; but the general design and arrangement appear to be nearly the same. The chief place of the Canninefates was Lugdunum Batavorum, now Leyden; and that of the Batavi was Batavodurum, afterwards called Noviomagus, and now Nymegen. This is Mannert's opinion, though others have placed Batavodurum at Duurstede, and made it a different place from Noviomagus. The other towns of the Batavi were Arena-speaks of the warm-bath as an unmanly habit (Odyss.' viii. 248), and cum, generally supposed to be Arnheim, but placed by others near Werthuysen; Carvo, on the northern branch of the Rhine, probably near Arnheim; Grinnes, near the junction of the Waal with the Maas; Trajectum, the modern Utrecht; and Forum Hadriani, in the western part of the island near the sea. The name of the Batavi can be traced even now in that of Betuwe, which is a district of the ancient Batavorum Insula, between the Rhine, the Waal, and the Lek. Beyond the northern branch of the Rhine, and between that and the Flevium, or Yssel, in the province now called North Holland, were the Frisii and the Frisiaboni, tribes belonging to the great Frisian stock which inhabited the land north-east of the Yssel. Pliny places two other tribes, the Sturii and the Marsucii, on the islands off the western coast at the mouth of the Mosa, which islands now form part of Zealand. After the death of Galba, the army of the Rhine having proclaimed Vitellius, and followed him on his way to Italy, the Batavi took the opportunity of rising against the Romans, whose alliance had become very burthensome to them. Claudius Civilis, a man belonging to one of their principal families, though bearing a Latin name, acted as their leader. At one time the insurrection seems to have spread among the neighbouring tribes of Germans as well as of Belgian Gauls, but the speedy return of the legions suppressed the movement. Civilis achieved many successes, and the Batavi, with their allies, fought bravely, but were at last subdued. According to Tacitus, however, they preserved their privilege of being exempt from taxation; they were a portion of the Roman empire; or, as he says, "free from all imposition and payments, and only set apart for the purposes of fighting, they are reserved wholly for the wars, in the same manner as a magazine of weapons and armour." (Gordon's transl. Germ.') As tools of this description they served under Hadrian in Masia, where they are stated to have swum across the Rhine in full armour. At this time, or as early as the reign of Trajan, the Roman domination was probably more complete, as we find in the Antonine Itinerary and the Peutinger Table, two Roman roads across the country, one from Lugdunum eastward to Trajectum, and following the course of the northern Rhine to its separation from the Vahalis, and another from Lugdunum southward across the island to the Mosa, and then eastward along the bank of that river and the Vahalis to Noviomagus. We also find places named after the emperors, such as Forum Hadriani, and fortified camps, such as Castra Batava, which some, however, suppose to have been the same as Batavodurum. (See Mannert, Geographie der Griechen und Römer.) There was another place in Upper Germany, or, more properly, in Noricum, called also Castra Batava, near the confluence of the Inn and the Danube, which was colonised by Batavi, apparently in conformity with the policy which led the Romans to transplant their subjects and allies from their homes to foreign countries. The Batavi were employed by Agricola in his wars in Britain. (Tacit. 'Agric.' xxxvi.) In some inscriptions they are called" friends and brothers of the Roman people," or of the "Roman emperors." The date of one of these inscriptions is determined by the name of the Emperor Aurelius. (Gruter. lxxi.) In the latter part of the 3rd century, during the civil war which desolated the empire, the Salian Franks invaded the country of the Batavi, and established themselves in it. They armed pirate vessels, which were encountered and defeated at sea by Carausius. Constantius and Constantine waged war against the Franks of the Batavian island, but could not drive them out of it. The Franks lost it, however, under Julian, by an irruption of Frisians, who came from the northern country near the Zuiderzee, and drove the Salian Franks 66 We learn from Seneca that the Roman baths were very simple, even mean and dark, in the time of Scipio Africanus; and it was not until the age of Agrippa, and the emperors after Augustus, that they were built and finished in a style of luxury almost incredible. Seneca (Epist.' lxxxvi.), who inveighs against this luxury, observes that a person was held to be poor and sordid whose baths did not shine with a profusion of the most precious materials, the marbles of Egypt inlaid with those of Numidia; unless the walls were laboriously stuccoed in imitation of painting; unless the chambers were covered with glass, the basins with the rare Thasian stone, and the water conveyed through silver pipes." These, it appears, were the luxuries of plebeian baths. Those of freedmen had "a profusion of statues, a number of columns supporting nothing, placed as an ornament merely on account of the expense: the water murmuring down steps, and the floor of precious stones." (Sen. Epist.' lxxxvi.) These baths of which Seneca speaks were private baths. Ammianus Marcellinus reckons sixteen public baths in Rome. The chief were those of Agrippa, Nero, Titus, Domitian, Antoninus Caracalla, and Diocletian. These edifices, differing, of course, in magnitude and splendour, and in the details of the arrangement, were all constructed on a common plan. They stood among extensive gardens and walks, and were often surrounded by a portico. The main building contained large halls for swimming and bathing, some for conversation, others for various athletic and manly exercises, and some for the declamation of poets and the lectures of philosophers; in a word, for every species of polite and manly amusement. These noble rooms were lined and paved with marble, adorned with the most valuable columns, paintings, and statues, and furnished with collections of books for the studious who resorted to them. (See Pompeii,' published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, vol. i.) These baths, which were called Therma, are now all in ruins. The best preserved are those of Titus, Diocletian, and Antoninus Caracalla. (See Life of Anton. Caracall.' by El. Spartianus.) We here subjoin a plan of the baths of Caracalla, which were finished, according to Eusebius, in the fourth year of that emperor's reign. These baths were among the most magnificent structures in existence. Mr. Fergusson says, that "even allowing for their being almost wholly of brick, and being disfigured by the bad taste inseparable from everything Roman, there is nothing in the world which for size and grandeur can compare with these imperial palaces of recreation." And he adds a comparison which will enable the ordinary English reader to form a better estimate of their size and character than he can readily do from mere description. He says: "St. George's Hall in Liverpool is the most exact copy in modern times of a part of these baths. The hall itself is a reproduction both in scale and design of the central hall of Caracalla's baths, but improved in detail and design, having five bays instead of only three. With the two courts at each end, it makes a A, a circular room, over which was a roof of copper; B, the Apodyterium; c, the Xystus; D, the Piscina; E, Vestibules, on the side of the Piscina, which served for the spectators and to contain the clothes of those who bathed; F, Vestibules at entering the Therma; on each side were libraries; G, G, Rooms where the wrestlers prepared for the exercises of the Palæstra, with a staircase to ascend to the upper story; H, H, the Peristyles, which we find in all the Roman Therme, having in the middle a Piscina for bathing; 1, 1, the Ephebium or place of exercise; K, K, the Elæothesium, or Elæothekium (EXαio-0éσlov-Ohkiov): L, L, Vestibules, over which there is another room with a Mosaic pavement; M, M, Laconicum; N, N, Warm Bath; 0, 0, Tepidarium; P, P, Frigidarium; a, a, Rooms for the spectators and for the use of the wrestlers; R, R, Exhedræ for the philosophers; s, Stadium; T, T, Places for heating the water; u, v, Cells for bathing; w, w, Rooms for conversation; x, x, Cisterns of three stories to receive rain water; Y, Y, the Conisterium; z, z, Recesses for ornament, and which served for the spectators to sit in; 1, Theatre for the spectators to see the exercises in the open air; 2. Apartments of two stories for the use of those who had the care of the baths; 3, 3, Exhedræ, where the gymnastic exercises were taught; 4, 4, Rooms for those who exercised in the Stadium; 5, 5, Atria to the academies; 6, 6, Temples; 7, 7, Academies; 8, 8, Arcades for the masters to walk in, detached from the noise of the Palæstra; 9, 9, Covered Baths; 10, 10, Stairs, &c., which led to the top; 11, 11, Stairs by which you ascend to the Palæstra. Flaminius Vacca informs us that in 1471 there was to be seen in | these baths an artificial island formed of marble, full of the remains of figures which had been carved on it. Near the island was a ship, with many figures in it, much broken. There was also a bathing vessel of granite. Two labra, of granite, found in the same place, are now employed as fountains in the great square before the Farnese Palace at Rome. In these baths were also found the Farnese Hercules and the great group of statues known by the name of the Farnese Bull. Besides the great granite column now in the palace of S. Lorenzo at Florence, Piranesi tells us that he saw, in the peristyle, two fountains enriched with the remains of bas-reliefs. The provincial towns had also their baths, both public and private. The public baths of Pompeii, which were discovered in 1824, in a very perfect state, throw much light on what the Roman writers (and especially Vitruvius) have written on the subject. The following description of them is taken from the second volume of the 'Pompeii' (published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge), with a few verbal alterations, and some omissions: These baths ART AND SCI. DIV. VOL. I. occupy a space of about 100 feet square, and are divided into three separate and distinct parts. One of them was appropriated to the fireplaces and to the servants of the establishment; the other two were occupied each by a set of baths contiguous to each other, similar, and adapted to the same purposes, and supplied with heat and water from the same furnace, and from the same reservoir. The apartments and passages are paved with white marble in mosaic. It is conjectured that the more spacious of the two sets of baths was for the use of the men, the smaller for the women. Vitruvius (lib. v. cap. 10) says that the caldarium for the women should be contiguous to that for the men, and be exposed to the same aspect; for thus the same hypocaustum, or stove, may suffice for both. Annexed is the plan of these Pompeian baths, situated near the Forum. The piscina or reservoir was separated at Pompeii from the baths themselves by the street which opens into the forum. The pipes which communicated between the reservoir and the bath passed over an arch thrown across the street. There were three entrances to the furnaces which heated the warm- and vapour-baths. The chief entrance 3 s 1, Piscina; 2, Street, over which was an aqueduct to convey the water from the Piscina to the baths; 3, Entrance to the baths of the men; 4, Watercloset; 5, Cortile, court, or vestibule to the baths; 6, Channel to collect the rain-water from the portico; 7, Colonnade round three sides of the vestibule; 8, Seats under the colonnade (Schola); 9, Oecus or exhedra; 10, Passage leading out of the baths; 11, Watercloset; 12, Entrance from the Street of Fortune; 13, Passage leading into the Apodyterium; 14, Apodyterium; 15, Seats; 16, Passage leading to the street; 17, Entrance from the Street of the Arch; 18, Wardrobe; 19, Frigidarium; 20, Niches in the Frigidarium; 21, Alveus or vase of the Frigidarium; 22, a bronze spout, through which the water ran into the Alveus; 23, Pipe out of which the water escaped; 24, Passages which lead from the Apodyterium to the furnaces; 25, Apartment for the stokers; 26, Doorway leading from this apartment to the Street of the Arch; 27, Furnace; 28, Calidarium, or boiler for hot water; 29, Tepidarium, or receptacle for tepid water; 30, Frigidarium, or reservoir for cold water; 31, Stairs leading to tbe boilers; 32, Passage which leads from the boilers to the court, where the fuel for the stoves was kept; 33, the court for fuel; 34, Columns which supported the roof of the court; 35, Stairs which lead to the arched roofs of the baths; 36, Door opening into the Street of the Forum; 37, Tepidarium; 38, Place where the bronze brazier was found; 39, Caldarium, having a suspended or hollow floor; 40, Laconicum; 41, Labrum: 42, Hot bath; 43, Entrance to the baths for the women; 44, Vestibule with seats; 45, Passage leading to the Apodyterium; 46, Apodyterium; 47, Seats in the same; 48, Frigidarium; 49, Tepidarium; 50, Caldarium with a hollow pavement; 51, Laconicum; 52, Labrum; 53, Hot bath; 54, a small room, use unknown; 55, Street, called the Street of the Arch; 56, Stairs; 57, 58, Two small voids without any communication. 1, Window closed with one great pane of glass; 2, Decorated archivolt; 3, a place for a lamp; 4, Seats of the Apodyterium with a raised step, serving as a footstool; 5, Holes in which were pegs for the dresses; 6, a window; 7, Conical ceiling of the Frigidarium; 8, Niches; 9, Alveus or marble vase. duty it was to keep up the fires. Here was found a quantity of pitch, | (25) led up to the coppers. The third entrance led from the used by the furnace-men to enliven the fires; the stairs in the room apodyterium of the men's bath by means of a corridor (23). There is |